FACTORS INFLUENCING ADOPTION OF AGRONOMIC PRACTICES OF NERICA RICE PRODUCTION IN THREE LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREAS OF KANO STATE, NIGERIA

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

NERICA (New Rice for Africa) rice represents one of the most significant agricultural innovations developed for African smallholder farmers in recent decades, representing a breakthrough in rice breeding that combines the high-yield potential of Asian rice (Oryza sativa) with the hardiness and stress tolerance of African rice (Oryza glaberrima). Developed by the Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice) through intensive interspecific crossing and selection, NERICA varieties were released in the late 1990s and early 2000s with the explicit goal of addressing Africa’s growing rice consumption gap while adapting to the resource-constrained conditions of smallholder farmers (WARDA, 2019). The NERICA name has since become synonymous with improved upland and lowland rice production across sub-Saharan Africa, with over 60 NERICA varieties released for different agroecological zones (AfricaRice, 2020). (WARDA, 2019; AfricaRice, 2020)

The distinct characteristics that distinguish NERICA varieties from traditional rice cultivars include earlier maturation (reducing the cropping cycle from 150-180 days to 90-120 days), shorter plant stature (reducing lodging risk and facilitating harvest), higher tillering capacity (producing more grain-bearing panicles per plant), improved grain quality (longer, slender grains preferred in many markets), and enhanced resistance to multiple stresses including drought, waterlogging, and major pests and diseases (Diagne et al., 2018). For farmers in semi-arid zones such as Kano State, where rainfall is limited and unpredictable, the drought tolerance and early maturation of NERICA varieties are particularly valuable, allowing rice cultivation in areas and seasons where traditional rice would fail. These characteristics have made NERICA a transformative technology in the Guinea and Sudan savannah zones of Nigeria (Ogunbayo et al., 2019). (Diagne et al., 2018; Ogunbayo et al., 2019)

The adoption of NERICA rice varieties alone, however, is insufficient to realize their full yield potential; improved agronomic practices specifically tailored to NERICA’s growth characteristics and requirements are equally essential. These recommended agronomic practices include: appropriate seed selection and treatment (using certified NERICA seeds treated with fungicides and insecticides); optimal planting density and spacing (typically 20cm x 20cm or 25cm x 25cm, with 2-3 seeds per hill); timely planting at the onset of rains to match the growing cycle; appropriate weed management (including pre-emergence and post-emergence herbicides combined with hand weeding); balanced fertilizer application (particularly nitrogen and phosphorus, with split application timing matched to NERICA’s growth stages); water management in lowland systems (alternate wetting and drying, proper drainage); and integrated pest and disease management (AfricaRice, 2019). Deviation from these practices can substantially reduce yields, sometimes below levels achievable with traditional varieties under traditional management (Tollens et al., 2020). (AfricaRice, 2019; Tollens et al., 2020)

Nigeria has been a primary beneficiary of NERICA dissemination efforts, with the federal government and state governments actively promoting NERICA adoption as part of national rice transformation strategies. The National Rice Development Strategy (NRDS) and subsequent Agricultural Promotion Policy (APP) identified NERICA as a priority technology for achieving rice self-sufficiency, and significant resources have been allocated to NERICA seed multiplication, distribution, and extension. Estimates suggest that NERICA varieties are now planted on 30-40% of Nigeria’s upland rice area, with adoption concentrated in the Guinea savannah and derived savannah zones (Kinkingninhoun-Médagbé et al., 2020). However, adoption of the complementary agronomic practices necessary to realize NERICA’s full potential lags substantially behind adoption of the varieties themselves, with many farmers continuing to manage NERICA as they would traditional rice (Manyong et al., 2019). (Kinkingninhoun-Médagbé et al., 2020; Manyong et al., 2019)

Kano State, located in the Sudan savannah ecological zone of northwestern Nigeria, represents an important but under-researched context for NERICA rice production. The state is characterized by semi-arid conditions, with annual rainfall ranging from 600 to 900 mm, concentrated in a single rainy season from May to September. Agriculture remains the primary livelihood for over 70% of the state’s population, with rain-fed crop production dominating during the rainy season and irrigated dry-season farming (using dams and river systems) playing an increasingly important role (Kano State Ministry of Agriculture, 2020). Historically, rice production in Kano State was limited, but the introduction of NERICA varieties, combined with expansion of irrigation infrastructure (Tiga Dam, Hadejia River projects), has stimulated significant growth in rice cultivation. Several Local Government Areas in the state have emerged as notable rice-producing zones (Bello and Musa, 2019). (Kano State Ministry of Agriculture, 2020; Bello and Musa, 2019)

Three Local Government Areas in Kano State serve as the focus of this study, selected based on their significance in rice production, their adoption of NERICA varieties, and their representativeness of different production systems within the state. The specific LGAs—which will be identified following preliminary field verification—include one LGA with predominantly rain-fed upland rice production (representing the original target system for upland NERICA varieties), one LGA with irrigated lowland rice production (representing systems where NERICA has been adapted for dry-season cultivation), and one LGA with a mix of both systems (providing comparative variation). This selection allows analysis of how agronomic practice adoption differs across production environments, which is critical for tailoring extension recommendations (Ogunwale and Adebayo, 2020). (Ogunwale and Adebayo, 2020)

The socio-economic characteristics of farmers in the study LGAs—including age, educational attainment, household size, farm size, rice farming experience, off-farm income, asset ownership, and social networks—shape their capacity and willingness to adopt recommended agronomic practices. Younger farmers may be more receptive to new information and more willing to experiment with unfamiliar practices, but older farmers may have accumulated more resources and experience (Rogers, 2003). Education enhances farmers’ ability to understand complex agronomic concepts (e.g., split nitrogen application timing, economic thresholds for pest management) and to interpret extension recommendations. Household size affects labor availability for labor-intensive practices such as transplanting, hand weeding, and staggered harvesting (Feder and Umail, 2020). Understanding the distribution of these characteristics and their relationship to agronomic practice adoption is a key objective of this research. (Rogers, 2003; Feder and Umail, 2020)

Rice production in Kano State operates within a complex set of biophysical constraints that shape the relevance and performance of different agronomic practices. The Sudan savannah zone is characterized by sandy loam soils that are generally low in organic matter and nitrogen, with variable phosphorus availability. Rainfall is both scarce and unpredictable, with dry spells common even within the rainy season. Temperatures are high throughout the growing season, increasing evapotranspiration and water stress. These conditions create specific challenges for rice production: maintaining soil moisture during flowering and grain-filling stages; managing weeds that compete vigorously for limited water and nutrients; and preventing blast disease (Pyricularia oryzae), which is favored by the alternating wet-dry conditions common in the zone (Saito et al., 2018). Recommended agronomic practices for NERICA in this environment differ from recommendations for higher-rainfall zones, emphasizing water conservation, weed competition, and disease management (AfricaRice, 2019). (Saito et al., 2018; AfricaRice, 2019)

The economic context of rice farming in the study LGAs also influences adoption decisions. Kano State is a major center of rice marketing, with the Dawanau and Singa markets serving as regional hubs for paddy and milled rice, attracting buyers from across northern Nigeria. This market integration means that farmers can potentially realize price premiums for higher-quality paddy (low broken percentage, uniform grain size, appropriate moisture content), which recommended agronomic practices (timely harvesting, proper drying, careful threshing) can help achieve (Usman and Adamu, 2018). However, the same markets expose farmers to competition from imported rice (often cheaper) and from locally produced rice from other states, which may depress prices and reduce the profitability of investments in improved practices. The relationship between market conditions and agronomic practice adoption in the study areas has not been systematically examined (Yusuf and Umar, 2020). (Usman and Adamu, 2018; Yusuf and Umar, 2020)

Access to productive resources—particularly land, labor, capital, and water—represents a critical enabling condition for adoption of recommended agronomic practices. Land access in the study areas is governed by a mixture of customary tenure (individual household holdings under family or lineage authority) and, in irrigated areas, formal allocation schemes associated with dam and river projects. Security of tenure varies: farmers with secure rights may be more willing to invest in practices with long-term benefits (e.g., soil fertility management, drainage improvements), while those with insecure rights may focus on short-term extraction (Okunlola and Adebayo, 2019). Labor availability is particularly important for practices such as transplanting (which requires more labor than direct seeding), proper spacing (which requires careful planting rather than broadcasting), and multiple weedings. Capital constraints affect farmers’ ability to purchase improved seeds, fertilizers, herbicides, and other purchased inputs, which are essential components of the recommended practice package (Akande and Adewumi, 2020). (Okunlola and Adebayo, 2019; Akande and Adewumi, 2020)

Water availability and management represent unique challenges for rice production in semi-arid Kano State. Rain-fed upland rice production, which dominates in some LGAs, depends entirely on the timing and quantity of rainfall; late onset, early cessation, or dry spells can cause crop failure. Recommended agronomic practices for rain-fed systems emphasize: planting at the optimal time based on rainfall onset; using early-maturing varieties to fit the growing cycle into the available rainy period; moisture conservation through proper land preparation and weed management; and supplementary irrigation where possible (Saito et al., 2018). In irrigated lowland systems (fadama areas along rivers and irrigated perimeters below dams), water management becomes a separate set of practices: maintaining proper water depth at different growth stages (shallow at establishment, deeper during tillering, drained at maturity), timing of irrigation rotations, and drainage to prevent waterlogging or salt accumulation. Adoption of these water management practices varies widely, with many farmers using continuous flooding (traditional practice) rather than optimized regimes (WARDA, 2019). (Saito et al., 2018; WARDA, 2019)

Extension services in Kano State provide the primary institutional channel for disseminating information about recommended agronomic practices to rice farmers. The Kano State Agricultural and Rural Development Authority (KNARDA) operates a multi-level extension system with zonal, block, and village extension agents covering all LGAs. Additionally, the Kano State Fadama Project (under the national Fadama program) has provided targeted extension support to fadama (lowland) rice farmers, including NERICA promotion (KNARDA, 2019). However, the effectiveness of these extension services in conveying complex agronomic information about NERICA management has been questioned. Extension agents may lack detailed knowledge of NERICA-specific recommendations; contact frequency with individual farmers is low; and the ratio of extension agents to rice farmers remains unfavorable. The relationship between extension contact and adoption of specific agronomic practices—as distinct from adoption of NERICA varieties—is a focus of this research (Agbamu, 2019). (KNARDA, 2019; Agbamu, 2019)

Farmer-to-farmer learning and social networks represent important alternative or complementary channels for information diffusion about NERICA agronomic practices. Farmers often learn about new practices by observing neighbors’ fields, discussing experiences during community gatherings or mosque visits, or through kinship networks. Successful adopters become informal opinion leaders, and their practices may be imitated by others (Rogers, 2003). In the Kano context, the strong social organization (including extended family systems, religious networks, and community associations) may facilitate or impede information flow depending on network structure and the characteristics of early adopters. Understanding the role of social networks in the diffusion of NERICA agronomic practices in the study areas—including whether practices spread more rapidly within kin groups, religious affiliations, or geographical proximity—has not been systematically investigated (Ogunwale and Adebayo, 2020). (Rogers, 2003; Ogunwale and Adebayo, 2020)

Credit access is consistently identified in the technology adoption literature as a critical factor enabling farmers to purchase inputs required for recommended practices. For NERICA rice production, recommended practices often require purchased inputs: certified NERICA seeds (more expensive than saved seed from local varieties), fertilizers (particularly nitrogen for split application), herbicides (for effective weed control where labor is scarce), and sometimes insecticides or fungicides (for pest and disease management). In the study areas, formal credit from banks and microfinance institutions is largely inaccessible to smallholder rice farmers due to collateral requirements, high interest rates, and administrative barriers. Informal credit from moneylenders, input suppliers, or family members is more accessible but often carries high effective interest rates or creates indebtedness (Omotesho and Ogunlade, 2020). The extent to which credit constraints limit adoption of specific agronomic practices (rather than variety adoption) in the study areas is an empirical question this study addresses. (Omotesho and Ogunlade, 2020)

The profitability of adopting recommended NERICA agronomic practices depends on the yield gains achieved, the input costs incurred, and the output prices received. Research station and demonstration plot data suggest that full adoption of recommended agronomic practices can increase NERICA yields from 1.5-2.0 tons per hectare (typical under farmer management) to 3.5-4.5 tons per hectare (AfricaRice, 2019). However, achieving these gains requires significant investment: certified seeds (NGN 8,000-12,000 per hectare), fertilizers (NGN 30,000-50,000 per hectare for recommended rates), herbicides (NGN 10,000-20,000 per hectare), and labor for transplanting, weeding, and other operations. The net profitability of adoption is positive only if the value of additional output exceeds the cost of additional inputs. In the study areas, typical input-output configurations, the profitability of different practice combinations, and the break-even yield gains required to justify adoption have not been documented for NERICA under local conditions (Ogunniyi and Olagunju, 2020). (AfricaRice, 2019; Ogunniyi and Olagunju, 2020)

Risk and uncertainty play important roles in adoption decisions for NERICA agronomic practices, particularly in the semi-arid environment of Kano State. Recommended practices that increase yields in normal or good rainfall years may fail to increase yields (or may even reduce yields) in drought years if they involve higher plant populations, higher nitrogen rates, or other practices that increase crop water demand. Farmers who have experienced crop failure in previous dry years may be risk-averse, preferring traditional practices that provide lower but more stable yields (Yesuf and Bluffstone, 2019). Additionally, the decision to invest in purchased inputs (fertilizers, herbicides) carries financial risk: if the season is poor due to drought or pest outbreak, the farmer may be unable to recoup the input investment. The influence of risk preferences and risk perceptions on adoption of specific agronomic practices in the study areas, and whether risk-averse farmers systematically adopt fewer practices, has not been investigated (Adepoju and Oni, 2019). (Yesuf and Bluffstone, 2019; Adepoju and Oni, 2019)

Previous adoption studies on NERICA rice in Nigeria and other West African countries have identified a range of factors affecting variety adoption, but much less is known about adoption of complementary agronomic practices. A study by Kinkingninhoun-Médagbé et al. (2018) in Benin found that education, access to extension, membership in farmer groups, and farm size positively influenced NERICA adoption. A study by Ogunbayo et al. (2019) in southwestern Nigeria found that awareness of NERICA (through radio, extension, and neighbors) was the strongest predictor of adoption, but that adoption of recommended agronomic practices lagged substantially behind variety adoption. A study by Tollens et al. (2020) across multiple West African countries found that labour availability, credit access, and market integration were significant determinants of agronomic practice adoption. No previous study has specifically examined adoption of NERICA agronomic practices in Kano State, representing a significant geographical and thematic gap (Diagne et al., 2018). (Kinkingninhoun-Médagbé et al., 2018; Ogunbayo et al., 2019; Tollens et al., 2020; Diagne et al., 2018)

In summary, NERICA rice production in three Local Government Areas of Kano State presents a critical case for understanding adoption of agronomic practices in a semi-arid, smallholder-dominated system. The NERICA varieties have been widely adopted, but adoption of the complementary agronomic practices necessary to realize their yield potential remains low, limiting productivity gains and the return on public investment in NERICA dissemination. The factors constraining adoption of these practices—including farmer characteristics, resource access, institutional support, biophysical conditions, risk preferences, and market factors—have not been systematically investigated in the Kano State context. This study therefore seeks to fill this knowledge gap by identifying and analyzing the factors influencing adoption of recommended agronomic practices of NERICA rice production in three Local Government Areas of Kano State, generating evidence to inform more effective extension programs and policy interventions (Saito et al., 2021; Ogunbayo et al., 2021). (Saito et al., 2021; Ogunbayo et al., 2021)

1.2 Statement of the Problems

Despite significant government investment in NERICA rice promotion in Kano State, including seed multiplication and distribution programs, extension training, and input subsidy schemes, adoption of recommended agronomic practices among NERICA growers in the three study LGAs remains unacceptably low. Preliminary evidence suggests that while NERICA variety adoption rates may reach 40-50% in some areas, adoption of complementary practices—such as recommended planting density, split nitrogen application, pre-emergence herbicide use, and integrated pest management—is much lower, often below 20% (KNARDA, 2019). This partial adoption pattern means that many farmers are not realizing the full yield potential of NERICA, achieving only modest productivity gains over traditional varieties despite having switched to improved germplasm.

The failure to adopt recommended agronomic practices carries significant economic costs for rice farmers and for the broader rice value chain in Kano State. A farmer who adopts NERICA seeds but continues to use traditional practices (broadcast planting, no fertilizer or poorly timed application, inadequate weed control) may achieve yields of only 1.5-2.0 tons per hectare—only marginally higher than yields from traditional varieties under similar management (AfricaRice, 2019). In contrast, a farmer who adopts both NERICA seeds and recommended agronomic practices can achieve yields of 3.0-4.0 tons per hectare—doubling or tripling production from the same land area. The foregone yield from partial adoption represents a significant opportunity cost for farm households and reduces the competitiveness of locally produced rice relative to imports (Ogunniyi and Olagunju, 2020).

A first specific problem is the absence of empirical data on the adoption status of specific agronomic practices among NERICA farmers in the three study LGAs. While aggregate figures suggest low adoption, there is no systematic documentation of which practices are adopted and which are not; of whether adoption is concentrated among certain farmer types or varies across LGAs; or of the intensity of adoption (how many practices, on what proportion of rice area). This lack of baseline data prevents extension programs from identifying which practices most urgently need promotion and which farmer segments are most in need of targeted support.

A second problem concerns the lack of empirical identification of the factors that constrain adoption of specific agronomic practices, which may differ from factors constraining variety adoption. Adopting a new variety requires a discrete decision (replacing saved seed with purchased certified seed) that may be driven by awareness, seed availability, and willingness to pay. Adopting recommended agronomic practices, in contrast, requires ongoing behavioral changes across the entire growing season: preparing land differently, planting at specific spacing, applying fertilizer at specific times, weeding on schedule, and so forth. The constraints to these behavioral changes—knowledge gaps, labor shortages, capital limitations, risk aversion—may be quite different from constraints to variety adoption (Tollens et al., 2020). These differences have not been examined in the Kano context.

A third problem concerns the role of complementary relationships among agronomic practices. The recommended practices are not independent; the yield benefit of adopting any one practice is typically greater when other practices are also adopted. For example, the benefit of split nitrogen application is greater when planting at recommended spacing (which reduces plant competition and allows efficient fertilizer use), and the benefit of improved spacing is greater when weed control is adequate (to prevent weeds from exploiting the same nutrients). However, farmers may adopt a subset of practices, and the resulting partial adoption may yield disappointing results, leading them to abandon all practices. The patterns of complementarity (or lack thereof) in the study areas—which practices tend to be adopted together, which are adopted in isolation—have not been analyzed (Manyong et al., 2019).

A fourth problem concerns the influence of production system (rain-fed upland versus irrigated lowland) on agronomic practice adoption and its determinants. The three LGAs selected for this study include one with predominantly rain-fed upland rice, one with predominantly irrigated lowland rice, and one with a mix of both systems. The recommended agronomic practices differ between these systems: upland NERICA practices emphasize moisture conservation, weed competition, and drought management; lowland practices emphasize water depth management, iron toxicity management (in some fadama areas), and nutrient management under flooded conditions. The extent to which adoption patterns and constraints differ between these systems, and whether separate extension strategies are needed, is unknown (Saito et al., 2018).

A fifth problem concerns the role of extension services in promoting agronomic practices specifically (as opposed to variety promotion). Extension programs have historically focused on “hard” technologies (seeds, fertilizers, chemicals) rather than “soft” agronomic management practices, which are more difficult to demonstrate and require ongoing follow-up. In the study areas, it is unclear whether extension agents possess detailed knowledge of NERICA-specific agronomic recommendations; whether extension contacts with farmers cover agronomic practices as well as variety recommendations; and whether farmers who receive extension advice are more likely to adopt recommended practices than those who do not (Agbamu, 2019). The current evidence base does not permit assessment of extension effectiveness for agronomic practice adoption.

A sixth problem concerns the availability and quality of certified NERICA seeds. Even when farmers are willing to adopt recommended agronomic practices, they may be unable to obtain sufficient quantities of high-quality NERICA seeds at planting time if seed supply chains are unreliable. In the study areas, the formal seed sector is weakly developed, and farmers often rely on seed saved from previous harvests (which may have lost varietal purity and germination capacity) or purchase seed from local markets of uncertain origin and quality (Bello and Musa, 2019). The relationship between seed access constraints and adoption of agronomic practices—not just variety adoption—has not been examined, but seed quality affects the response to other practices (e.g., fertilizer use is less beneficial if seeds are of low viability or impure).

A seventh problem concerns the labor requirements of recommended agronomic practices. Many recommended practices—transplanting (rather than direct seeding), proper spacing (requires careful planting rather than broadcasting), multiple weedings, split fertilizer application, staggered harvesting—are more labor-intensive than traditional practices, which are designed to minimize labor input at the expense of yield. In the study areas, where many able-bodied household members have migrated to urban centers for employment and where agricultural labor markets are thin, labor constraints may be binding, particularly at peak periods (planting, weeding). The extent to which labor availability constrains adoption of specific practices, and whether labor constraints affect female-headed households disproportionately, has not been investigated (Ogunwale and Adebayo, 2020).

An eighth problem concerns the role of gender in agronomic practice adoption. Women play significant roles in rice production in Kano State, particularly in transplanting, weeding, threshing, and processing. However, decision-making authority over technology adoption, input purchases, and resource allocation may rest primarily with male household heads. Women may have limited access to extension services (especially where extension agents are male and cultural norms restrict women’s interactions with unrelated men) and limited control over household financial resources (Ogunwale and Adebayo, 2020). The gender dimensions of agronomic practice adoption—including whether adoption rates differ between male-headed and female-headed households, whether the determinants of adoption differ by gender, and whether women’s participation in decision-making affects adoption—have not been examined in the study areas.

A ninth problem concerns the influence of farmers’ technical knowledge and understanding of NERICA-specific requirements. Recommended agronomic practices for NERICA are more complex than for traditional rice varieties, requiring knowledge of: growth stages (to time fertilizer application), plant physiology (to understand spacing effects), pest and disease cycles (to time interventions), and soil-water relationships (to manage irrigation). Farmers who lack this knowledge may not understand why practices are recommended or may implement them incorrectly, leading to poor results and subsequent abandonment (Tollens et al., 2020). The level of technical knowledge among NERICA farmers in the study areas, the sources of that knowledge, and the relationship between knowledge and practice adoption have not been assessed.

A tenth problem concerns the profitability of different practice combinations and the minimum yield response required to justify adoption. For each recommended practice, there is a yield response function and a cost; the net benefit of adopting a practice is positive only if the value of additional yield exceeds the cost of additional inputs and labor. In the study areas, the actual yield responses achieved by farmers (as distinct from research station or demonstration plot responses) have not been measured, so the profitability of adoption cannot be accurately assessed. Farmers who have tried a practice and observed disappointing yield responses may be correct that adoption is not profitable under their specific conditions, rather than being “irrational” or “traditional” (Ogunniyi and Olagunju, 2020).

An eleventh problem concerns the influence of risk and uncertainty on practice adoption. Recommended agronomic practices often increase the financial and production risk faced by farmers: purchased inputs (fertilizers, herbicides) represent cash outlays that must be recovered even if the season is poor; higher plant populations and higher nitrogen rates increase the crop’s water demand, which is risky in a semi-arid environment; and unfamiliar practices may fail in ways that traditional practices would not. Risk-averse farmers may deliberately adopt fewer practices or less intensive practice levels to reduce their exposure to downside risk (Yesuf and Bluffstone, 2019). The distribution of risk preferences among farmers in the study areas, and the extent to which risk aversion explains non-adoption even when expected returns are positive, has not been investigated.

A twelfth problem concerns the comparability of adoption determinants across the three LGAs selected for this study. The three LGAs differ in production system (upland, lowland, mixed), market access (distance to major markets, road quality), extension coverage, and baseline agroecological conditions. It is plausible that factors constraining adoption in one LGA (e.g., labor constraints in the lowland LGA where transplanting is practiced, input access in the upland LGA where markets are more distant) differ from factors in other LGAs. Without comparative analysis that estimates adoption models separately for each LGA or tests for interaction effects between LGA and potential determinants, extension programs cannot be appropriately tailored to local conditions. The current evidence base does not permit such comparative analysis.

In summary, the adoption of recommended agronomic practices of NERICA rice production among farmers in the three focal LGAs of Kano State is constrained by multiple, interconnected problems spanning farmer characteristics (knowledge, risk preferences, gender), production system (upland vs. lowland, labor requirements), institutions (extension effectiveness, seed supply, credit access), and economics (profitability, input costs, output prices). These problems have not been systematically investigated through rigorous empirical research in these specific LGAs, leaving a substantial knowledge gap that undermines evidence-based extension programming and policy formulation. This study therefore seeks to fill that gap by identifying the factors influencing adoption of recommended agronomic practices, quantifying their relative importance, and generating actionable recommendations for enhancing adoption rates and improving NERICA productivity and farmer welfare in Kano State.

1.3 Aim of the Study

The aim of this study is to identify and analyze the factors influencing the adoption of recommended agronomic practices of NERICA rice production among farmers in three Local Government Areas of Kano State, Nigeria.

1.4 Objectives of the Study

The specific objectives of this study are to:

1. Describe the socio-economic characteristics of NERICA rice farmers in the three study LGAs and identify the specific agronomic practices (planting density, fertilizer management, weed management, water management, pest management) currently adopted by farmers.
2. Determine the level of awareness and sources of information (extension, radio, farmer groups, neighbors, input suppliers) on recommended NERICA agronomic practices among farmers in the study areas.
3. Identify and analyze the factors (including age, education, farm size, rice farming experience, extension contact, credit access, labor availability, and production system) that significantly influence the adoption of recommended NERICA agronomic practices.
4. Compare the yield and profitability outcomes between farmers who adopt recommended agronomic practices at high, medium, and low intensity levels, and examine complementarity effects among different practices.
5. Examine the constraints limiting adoption of recommended agronomic practices (including knowledge gaps, labor shortages, capital constraints, seed availability, and risk concerns) and develop recommendations for policy and extension interventions tailored to the study areas.

1.5 Research Questions

This study seeks to answer the following research questions:

1. What are the socio-economic characteristics of NERICA rice farmers in the three study LGAs of Kano State, and what specific agronomic practices are currently adopted at what intensity levels?
2. What is the level of awareness of recommended NERICA agronomic practices among farmers in the study areas, and through what information channels do they learn about these practices?
3. What socio-economic, institutional, and biophysical factors significantly influence the adoption of recommended NERICA agronomic practices in the study areas?
4. Do farmers who adopt recommended agronomic practices at higher intensity achieve significantly higher yields and net returns per hectare than those with lower intensity adoption, and are there complementarity effects among practices?
5. What are the major constraints limiting the adoption of recommended NERICA agronomic practices in the study areas, and what strategies can be employed to overcome these constraints?

1.6 Research Hypotheses

Hypothesis One

• Null Hypothesis (H₀₁): There is no significant relationship between a farmer’s contact with agricultural extension services and the adoption intensity of recommended NERICA agronomic practices in the study LGAs.
• Alternative Hypothesis (H₁₁): There is a significant positive relationship between a farmer’s contact with agricultural extension services and the adoption intensity of recommended NERICA agronomic practices in the study LGAs.

Hypothesis Two

• Null Hypothesis (H₀₂): There is no significant relationship between access to agricultural credit and the adoption of recommended fertilizer management practices (timing, rates, split application) for NERICA rice production.
• Alternative Hypothesis (H₁₂): There is a significant positive relationship between access to agricultural credit and the adoption of recommended fertilizer management practices for NERICA rice production in the study areas.

Hypothesis Three

• Null Hypothesis (H₀₃): There is no significant difference in the adoption of recommended NERICA agronomic practices between farmers in rain-fed upland systems and farmers in irrigated lowland systems in the study areas.
• Alternative Hypothesis (H₁₃): There is a significant difference in the adoption of recommended NERICA agronomic practices between farmers in rain-fed upland systems and farmers in irrigated lowland systems in the study areas.

Hypothesis Four

• Null Hypothesis (H₀₄): There is no significant difference in rice yield (kg/ha) between farmers who adopt recommended planting spacing and farmers who use traditional broadcast planting for NERICA rice.
• Alternative Hypothesis (H₁₄): Farmers who adopt recommended planting spacing achieve significantly higher rice yields (kg/ha) than farmers who use traditional broadcast planting for NERICA rice in the study areas.

Hypothesis Five

• Null Hypothesis (H₀₅): Household labor availability has no significant effect on the adoption of labor-intensive agronomic practices (transplanting, multiple weeding, staggered harvesting) for NERICA rice production.
• Alternative Hypothesis (H₁₅): Household labor availability has a significant positive effect on the adoption of labor-intensive agronomic practices for NERICA rice production in the study areas.

1.7 Significance of the Study

This study is significant for multiple stakeholders and purposes. First, for NERICA rice farmers in the study LGAs and across Kano State, the findings will provide insights into the factors that constrain or enable adoption of agronomic practices, potentially informing their own decisions about practice adoption. Second, for agricultural extension services (KNARDA, NAERLS, and LGA agriculture departments), the study will identify which farmer characteristics, information channels, and support services most strongly influence agronomic practice adoption, enabling more targeted and effective extension programming. Third, for policymakers at state and federal levels, the evidence generated will inform decisions about extension system reform, input subsidy design, credit interventions, and seed system development for rice. Fourth, for the Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice) and IITA, the study will provide feedback on adoption constraints and the performance of recommended practices under real farm conditions in the Sudan savannah zone, guiding future research and technology development. Fifth, for development partners and NGOs working in rice value chain development in Kano State, the findings will guide intervention design and resource allocation. Sixth, for the Kano State Agricultural and Rural Development Authority (KNARDA), the study will provide an evidence base for strategic planning and program improvement. Seventh, for financial institutions and microfinance programs, the study will provide data on credit demand for rice production inputs. Eighth, for the academic community, the study will contribute to the literature on agricultural technology adoption in semi-arid Nigeria, specifically on the under-researched topic of agronomic practice adoption for NERICA rice. Finally, by generating evidence that can enhance adoption of recommended practices, the study will contribute indirectly to increasing rice productivity, improving farm household incomes, enhancing food security, and supporting Nigeria’s efforts to achieve rice self-sufficiency.

1.8 Scope of the Study

The geographical scope of this study is limited to three Local Government Areas (LGAs) in Kano State, Nigeria. The specific LGAs will be selected from among the major NERICA rice-producing LGAs in the state, with selection criteria including: significance of rice production; documented adoption of NERICA varieties; representation of different production systems (rain-fed upland, irrigated lowland, mixed); accessibility for research purposes; and absence of overlapping intensive interventions that would confound analysis. The identities of the specific LGAs will be confirmed following preliminary field visits and consultation with KNARDA and LGA agriculture departments. The thematic scope focuses specifically on recommended agronomic practices for NERICA rice production as defined by AfricaRice, IITA, and the national rice research program, including: seed selection and treatment; planting practices (spacing, plant population, transplanting vs. direct seeding); fertilizer management (rates, timing, split application); weed management (pre-emergence and post-emergence herbicides, hand weeding timing); water management (in lowland systems: water depth, irrigation scheduling, drainage); and integrated pest and disease management (scouting, economic thresholds, pesticide use). The study does not extend to post-harvest handling, processing, or marketing of NERICA rice, except insofar as these considerations affect production practice adoption. The respondent scope includes smallholder NERICA rice farmers (both adopters and non-adopters of recommended agronomic practices) in the selected LGAs. Key informants (extension agents, KNARDA officials, input suppliers, cooperative leaders) are also included for qualitative data collection. The temporal scope covers the period 2015-2025, with primary data collected between 2024 and 2025, focusing on the most recent completed production season.

1.9 Limitation of the Study

Several limitations inherent in this study should be acknowledged transparently. First, the study relies primarily on cross-sectional survey data, which can identify correlates of adoption but cannot definitively establish causal relationships between potential determinants and adoption outcomes. Second, the study focuses only on three LGAs within Kano State, so findings may not be generalizable to other parts of Kano State, other states in the Sudan savannah zone, or other NERICA-producing regions of Nigeria with different conditions. Third, the study’s reliance on farmer recall for data on yields, input use, costs, and practice implementation is subject to recall bias and measurement error; where possible, the study will employ multiple recall aids and cross-check responses, but laboratory-level accuracy cannot be achieved. Fourth, social desirability bias may affect responses about adoption, with farmers potentially overstating their use of recommended practices or understating challenges. Fifth, the study cannot experimentally manipulate adoption status, so comparisons between adopters and non-adopters may be confounded by unobserved differences (e.g., farmer motivation, managerial ability, unobserved risk preferences, field-specific soil conditions) that affect both adoption and outcomes. Sixth, the timing of data collection relative to the production season (pre-harvest, harvest, or post-harvest) may affect the accuracy of recall for different variables and practices. Seventh, the study does not include soil sampling or water quality analysis, so biophysical variation (which may affect practice performance and thus adoption) is measured through farmer reports and secondary data rather than direct measurement. Eighth, the study does not include a longitudinal component, so it cannot assess whether adoption is sustained over multiple seasons or whether practices are discontinued after initial trial. Ninth, the sample size, while statistically adequate for planned analyses, may limit the ability to detect small effects or to conduct highly disaggregated subgroup analyses (e.g., separate analysis for each LGA with small cell sizes). Tenth, the study relies on self-reported measures of practice adoption rather than direct observation of fields, which would be more accurate but is logistically infeasible for a sample of this size. Eleventh, security conditions in some parts of Kano State may affect data collection access and respondent willingness to participate. Despite these limitations, the study will employ rigorous sampling methods, validated survey instruments, appropriate analytical techniques (including robustness checks and sensitivity analyses), and transparent reporting to maximize the credibility and utility of its findings for policy and practice.

1.10 Definition of Terms

NERICA (New Rice for Africa): A group of rice varieties developed by the Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice) through interspecific crossing of Asian rice (Oryza sativa) and African rice (Oryza glaberrima). NERICA varieties combine the high yield potential and grain quality of O. sativa with the stress tolerance (drought, pest, disease) and adaptation to low-input conditions of O. glaberrima.

Recommended Agronomic Practices: The set of crop management practices recommended by agricultural research and extension services for NERICA rice production to achieve optimal yield, quality, and profitability. These include recommendations for planting, fertilization, weed control, water management, and pest management, tailored to specific production systems (upland, lowland, irrigated) and agroecological zones.

Agronomic Practice Adoption: The decision and implementation by a farmer to use one or more recommended agronomic practices for NERICA rice production. Adoption can be measured as a binary variable (adopted/not adopted for a specific practice), as an intensity measure (number of practices adopted, proportion of rice area under recommended practices), or as a correctness measure (whether practices are implemented according to recommendations, e.g., correct fertilizer timing rather than simply using fertilizer).

Upland Rice: Rice grown on rain-fed, non-flooded, well-drained soils, typically on sloping or level land without water impoundment. Upland NERICA varieties are specifically bred for these conditions, with drought tolerance and weed competitiveness as key traits.

Lowland Rice: Rice grown in hydromorphic zones (areas that are flooded or waterlogged for part of the growing season), including rain-fed lowlands (naturally flooded by rainfall and runoff), fadama (inland valleys), and irrigated lowlands (managed irrigation systems). Lowland NERICA varieties are bred for tolerance of waterlogging and, in some cases, iron toxicity.

Fadama: The Hausa term for seasonally flooded lowland areas, typically along river courses or in inland valleys, used for dry-season irrigated cropping including rice. Fadama areas are a critical resource for rice production in Kano State, enabling dry-season cultivation when uplands are fallow.

Planting Density: The number of rice plants per unit area, typically expressed as plants per square meter or hill spacing (e.g., 20cm x 20cm). Recommended planting density for NERICA varies by production system and variety but is generally higher than traditional practice to optimize tillering and yield.

Split Application of Fertilizer: The practice of dividing the total recommended fertilizer dose into multiple applications applied at different growth stages (e.g., basal application at planting, top-dressing at tillering, second top-dressing at panicle initiation). Split application improves nutrient use efficiency by matching nitrogen supply to crop demand.

Transplanting: A rice establishment method in which seedlings are raised in a nursery then transplanted into the main field at a specific spacing. Transplanting allows precise spacing and plant population control but requires more labor than direct seeding. For NERICA, transplanting is recommended in lowland systems to optimize yields.

Direct Seeding: A rice establishment method in which seeds are sown directly into the main field, either by broadcasting (scattering seeds) or drilling (planting in rows). Direct seeding is less labor-intensive than transplanting but makes spacing and population control more difficult and may increase weed competition.

Integrated Pest Management (IPM): An ecosystem-based approach to pest and disease management that combines biological, cultural, physical, and chemical methods. For NERICA rice, IPM includes the use of resistant varieties, field sanitation, biological control agents, and judicious use of pesticides only when pest populations exceed economic thresholds.

Rice Blast: A fungal disease of rice caused by Pyricularia oryzae (teleomorph Magnaporthe oryzae), one of the most destructive rice diseases worldwide. Blast affects leaves, nodes, panicles, and grains; it is favored by high nitrogen levels, dense canopies, and alternating wet-dry conditions common in semi-arid environments.

Adoption Intensity: A measure of the degree to which a farmer has adopted recommended practices, typically operationalized as the number of recommended practices adopted (out of a total possible), the proportion of rice area under recommended practices, or an index incorporating both. High adoption intensity is associated with greater yield gains but also greater input requirements.

Agronomic Practice Complementarity: The phenomenon whereby the yield benefit from adopting one recommended practice is greater when another recommended practice is also adopted. For example, the benefit of split nitrogen application is greater when planting at recommended spacing; the benefit of recommended spacing is greater when weed control is adequate.

Extension Contact: The frequency, quality, and content of interaction between a farmer and agricultural extension personnel (from KNARDA, NAERLS, or other providers). In this study, extension contact is measured through self-reported number of extension visits in the past 12 months, participation in extension training events specifically on NERICA, and perceived usefulness of extension advice received.

KNARDA: Kano State Agricultural and Rural Development Authority, the state agency responsible for agricultural extension, input supply, and rural development programming in Kano State, including NERICA rice promotion.

Seed Inoculation (Rice): The application of beneficial microorganisms to rice seeds before planting, which for NERICA may include mycorrhizal fungi or plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria to enhance nutrient uptake and stress tolerance. (Note: Unlike soyabean, rice does not require rhizobial inoculation for nitrogen fixation.)