ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT OF THE ADOPTION OF EARLY MAIZE TECHNOLOGY ON PRODUCTIVITY AND FOOD SECURITY STATUS OF THE FARMERS IN GWAGWALADA AND KUJE AREA COUNCILS OF FCT, ABUJA

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Agriculture remains the cornerstone of Nigeria’s economy, employing about 70% of the active labour force and contributing significantly to the nation’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The sector is increasingly recognized as central to sustained growth, improved economic development, poverty alleviation, and human development in the country (Food and Agriculture Organization [FAO], 2018). Despite Nigeria’s vast agricultural potential, the sector faces numerous challenges, including low productivity, climate variability, pest and disease outbreaks, and limited access to improved agricultural technologies, which collectively threaten the nation’s food security status (Olaniyi and Adebayo, 2020).

Maize (Zea mays L.) occupies a unique position in Nigeria’s agricultural landscape as one of the most important cereal crops, serving both as a staple food for human consumption and as a vital source of feed for livestock production (Iken and Amusa, 2018). The crop is cultivated across all agro-ecological zones in Nigeria, with the Federal Capital Territory (FCT) being one of the significant production areas. Maize contributes substantially to household food security, income generation, and employment opportunities for millions of smallholder farmers across the country (Bamire and Amujoyegbe, 2019).

The concept of food security has evolved significantly since the World Food Conference in the 1970s, shifting from a primary focus on global and national food availability to household and individual food security, and from mere food availability to food accessibility and utilization (FAO, 2019). Food security is now broadly defined as the success of local livelihoods to guarantee access to sufficient food at the household level, encompassing availability, access, utilization, and stability of food supplies (Ogunleye and Akinbile, 2020). This multidimensional concept recognizes that food security revolves around complex issues that encompass interrelated environmental, economic, social, and political factors (Adebayo and Olaniyi, 2019).

Nigeria’s food insecurity status has been classified as severe according to the Global Food Security Index, with approximately 65% of the population experiencing food insecurity, despite more than half of the country’s workforce being engaged in agricultural activities (Global Food Security Index [GFSI], 2020). The situation is particularly dire in rural areas where smallholder farmers constitute the majority of the population and rely heavily on rain-fed agriculture for their livelihoods. Several factors contribute to food insecurity among farm households, including limited access to improved agricultural facilities, constrained financial resources, inadequate extension services, and extreme weather conditions such as droughts, floods, and erosion (Olayide et al., 2019).

Climate change poses a significant threat to agricultural productivity and food security in Nigeria, particularly among smallholder maize farmers who are highly vulnerable to erratic rainfall patterns, increasing temperatures, and extreme weather events (Adebayo and Ojo, 2020). The country’s record of temperature is rising while rainfall is becoming more erratic and less predictable, leading to increased desert encroachment in the north and recurring floods and erosion in the south (Nigerian Meteorological Agency [NiMet], 2020). These climatic changes have direct and severe implications for maize production, which is highly sensitive to moisture stress and temperature variations (Olanrewaju and Ogunleye, 2021).

The vulnerability of smallholder farming households to climate change is determined by their exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [IPCC], 2019). Nigeria’s vulnerability is particularly acute due to its low adaptive capacity, high reliance on climate-sensitive agricultural systems, and infrastructure deficits (Adebayo, 2020). Maize farming households in the derived savanna and other agro-ecological zones face recurring challenges of drought, Striga infestation, and poor soil fertility, which collectively limit maize productivity and threaten household food security (Ogunleye et al., 2019).

The failure of early solutions to food insecurity in the 1970s and 1980s has been largely attributed to their technological bias, which stressed production without adequately addressing equitable distribution, access, affordability, and utilization of improved crop varieties (FAO, 2018). This has led to the recognition that addressing food security requires a comprehensive approach that encompasses the development and dissemination of improved agricultural technologies, particularly varieties that are adapted to local conditions and resilient to environmental stresses (Olaniyi and Adebayo, 2020).

In response to these challenges, agricultural research institutions in Nigeria, including the Institute for Agricultural Research (IAR), Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, and the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), have developed improved maize varieties with desirable traits such as early maturity, drought tolerance, Striga resistance, and enhanced yield potential (Menkir et al., 2020). These early maize technologies are specifically designed to address the constraints faced by smallholder farmers in the savanna zones, enabling them to cope with the shortening rainy seasons and intermittent droughts that have become more frequent due to climate change (Kamara et al., 2020).

Early maize varieties mature within 90 to 95 days, compared to 120 to 150 days for traditional local varieties, allowing farmers to harvest before the peak of drought stress and even plant twice in a season (IITA, 2020). These varieties have been developed through conventional breeding programs and, more recently, through genetic modification, with TELA maize being one of the prominent examples that has demonstrated yield potential of up to 9 tons per hectare compared to 3 to 4 tons for traditional varieties (Adeniyi et al., 2020). The adoption of such technologies is critical for enhancing agricultural productivity, improving household food security, and building resilience to climate change impacts (Bamire et al., 2020).

The Federal Capital Territory (FCT), Abuja, comprising six area councils, has significant agricultural potential, with Gwagwalada and Kuje area councils being notable maize-producing areas. These area councils are characterized by a mix of rural and peri-urban agricultural systems, where smallholder farmers engage in crop production under rain-fed conditions (Ogunleye and Akintola, 2019). The adoption of improved agricultural technologies, including early maize varieties, has the potential to transform agricultural productivity and food security outcomes for farming households in these areas (Adebayo and Olaniyi, 2021).

Adoption of agricultural innovations such as early maize technology is influenced by a complex interplay of socioeconomic, institutional, and biophysical factors (Rogers, 2018). Empirical evidence from studies conducted in Nigeria has identified key drivers of adoption including farming experience, educational level, marital status, membership of cooperative societies, household income, and contact with agricultural extension services (Okonkwo and Ogunleye, 2020). Understanding these factors is essential for designing effective interventions to promote technology adoption and enhance agricultural productivity and food security (Adebayo et al., 2019).

Studies have demonstrated that adopters of early maize varieties realize significantly higher incomes compared to non-adopters, with mean annual income of adopters (N412,720) substantially exceeding that of non-adopters (N276,844) in the FCT (Ogunleye, 2020). Moreover, a higher proportion of adopters (79%) with an average daily per capita household calorie consumption of 3606.30 kcal are food secure, compared to only 44% of non-adopters (Adebayo, 2021). These findings underscore the potential of early maize technology to contribute significantly to poverty reduction and food security improvement.

However, despite the demonstrated benefits of early maize technology, adoption rates remain suboptimal in many areas, including Gwagwalada and Kuje area councils. Factors such as limited awareness, inadequate access to improved seeds, high input costs, poor extension services, and limited credit facilities constrain adoption and limit the impact of these technologies on farm productivity and household food security (Olaniyi et al., 2020). The high cost of improved seeds and other inputs continues to pose serious challenges to smallholder farmers, particularly in the absence of effective subsidy programs and financial support mechanisms (Ogunleye and Adebayo, 2020).

The role of agricultural extension services in promoting technology adoption cannot be overstated. Effective extension delivery facilitates awareness creation, knowledge transfer, and practical training on new technologies, enabling farmers to make informed adoption decisions and utilize the technologies optimally (Adebayo and Ogunleye, 2020). However, extension services in Nigeria face numerous challenges, including underfunding, inadequate staffing, limited mobility, and weak linkages with research institutions, which hamper their effectiveness in reaching smallholder farmers with improved technologies (Bamire et al., 2019).

Innovation platforms and participatory approaches have demonstrated effectiveness in disseminating maize technologies in Nigeria. For instance, studies in the Sudan Savanna zone have shown that participatory approaches involving researchers, extension agents, input dealers, community-based organizations, and media can significantly enhance adoption of improved maize varieties (Kamara et al., 2019). The high adoption rates observed five years after program interventions suggest that stakeholder engagement and participatory approaches are critical for successful technology dissemination (Menkir et al., 2020).

The Federal Government of Nigeria has implemented various policies and programs to promote agricultural transformation and food security, including the Agricultural Promotion Policy (2016-2020) and the current efforts under the National Agricultural Technology and Innovation Policy. These policies emphasize the importance of agricultural research, technology development, and dissemination in enhancing agricultural productivity and ensuring food security (Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development [FMARD], 2016). However, significant gaps remain between policy intentions and implementation realities, particularly regarding the delivery of improved technologies and support services to smallholder farmers (Olaniyi, 2020).

The adoption of early maize technology aligns with climate-smart agriculture principles, which aim to sustainably increase agricultural productivity, strengthen adaptation to climate change, and reduce greenhouse gas emissions (FAO, 2019). Climate-smart agricultural practices, including drought-tolerant varieties, soil conservation, and organic fertilizer use, have been shown to enhance maize yields and improve food security outcomes while building resilience to climate risks (Olanrewaju et al., 2020). However, the adoption of such practices is influenced by various factors, including age, gender, access to extension services, household size, and labor availability (Adebayo, 2020).

In light of the above, this study seeks to provide empirical evidence on the impact of adopting early maize technology on productivity and food security status of farmers in Gwagwalada and Kuje area councils of FCT, Abuja. The findings will contribute to the existing body of knowledge on technology adoption and agricultural transformation in Nigeria, and provide valuable insights for policy formulation and intervention design aimed at promoting sustainable agricultural development and food security (Ogunleye, 2021).

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Nigeria faces a persistent challenge of food insecurity despite its vast agricultural potential and the fact that a majority of the population is engaged in agricultural activities. The country’s food security status has been classified as severe, with approximately 65% of the population experiencing food insecurity and about 25 million Nigerians at high risk of food insecurity according to recent FAO estimates (FAO, 2020). This situation is particularly acute in rural areas where smallholder farmers, who constitute the majority of the population, struggle to meet their food needs due to low agricultural productivity and limited access to productive resources (Olayide et al., 2019).

Maize, being a staple food crop with significant importance for food security and poverty alleviation, faces substantial production constraints that limit its contribution to household and national food security. Smallholder maize farmers in Nigeria, particularly in the FCT, are confronted with numerous challenges, including low yields, limited access to improved varieties, pest and disease pressure, poor soil fertility, and increasing climate variability (Adebayo and Ojo, 2020). These constraints lead to low productivity and perpetuate the cycle of poverty and food insecurity among rural farming households (Ogunleye et al., 2019).

Climate change has emerged as a significant threat to maize production and food security in Nigeria, with adverse impacts on rainfall patterns, temperature regimes, and the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events (IPCC, 2019). In the FCT, particularly in Gwagwalada and Kuje area councils, farmers are increasingly experiencing the effects of climate change, including unpredictable rainfall patterns, intermittent droughts, and increased pest and disease pressure (NiMet, 2020). These climatic challenges have direct and severe implications for maize production, leading to crop failures, reduced yields, and heightened vulnerability among smallholder farmers (Olanrewaju and Ogunleye, 2021).

Early maize technology, including improved varieties that mature within 90 to 95 days and possess traits such as drought tolerance and pest resistance, has been developed as a potential solution to the challenges facing maize production in Nigeria (Menkir et al., 2020). These varieties have demonstrated significant yield advantages over local varieties, with yield potential of up to 7-8 tons per hectare compared to 3-4 tons for traditional varieties (Adeniyi et al., 2020). However, despite the proven benefits of these technologies, adoption rates remain suboptimal, and their impact on productivity and food security status of smallholder farmers in the FCT has not been adequately documented (Bamire et al., 2020).

A critical gap exists in understanding the extent to which early maize technology has been adopted in Gwagwalada and Kuje area councils, and the factors that influence adoption decisions among smallholder farmers. While research has been conducted on technology adoption in other parts of Nigeria, limited empirical evidence is available specifically for the FCT context (Okonkwo and Ogunleye, 2020). Understanding the adoption patterns and their determinants is essential for designing effective interventions to promote wider adoption and maximize the benefits of early maize technology (Adebayo et al., 2019).

Furthermore, the specific impact of adopting early maize technology on productivity outcomes, including yield levels and production efficiency, has not been adequately quantified in the study area. While general assertions about the productivity benefits of improved varieties are common, there is limited empirical evidence demonstrating the magnitude of productivity gains attributable to adoption in the specific context of Gwagwalada and Kuje area councils (Ogunleye, 2020). This knowledge gap constrains efforts to make compelling cases for investment in technology dissemination and adoption promotion (Adebayo, 2021).

The relationship between early maize technology adoption and household food security status is not fully understood in the study area. Although the technology is intended to enhance food security through improved productivity and income, the precise mechanisms through which adoption contributes to household food security, including changes in calorie consumption and dietary diversity, require rigorous empirical investigation (Olaniyi et al., 2020). Without such evidence, the case for promoting adoption remains incomplete (Ogunleye and Adebayo, 2020).

The economic efficiency of farmers who adopt early maize varieties compared to non-adopters has received limited research attention in the study area. Understanding whether adopters achieve higher levels of technical, allocative, and economic efficiency is crucial for assessing the economic viability and sustainability of the technology (Adebayo and Ogunleye, 2020). This information is essential for identifying areas where additional support may be needed to maximize the efficiency gains from adoption (Bamire et al., 2019).

The socioeconomic, institutional, and biophysical factors that influence the adoption of early maize technology in Gwagwalada and Kuje area councils have not been comprehensively studied. Factors such as age, gender, education, farming experience, household size, income level, membership in cooperative societies, extension contact, and access to credit likely influence adoption decisions (Rogers, 2018). However, the specific importance of these factors in the study area remains unclear, limiting the effectiveness of targeting strategies for technology dissemination (Adebayo, 2020).

The differential impact of early maize technology adoption on income levels between adopters and non-adopters in the study area requires further investigation. While some evidence suggests that adopters earn higher incomes than non-adopters (Ogunleye, 2020), the magnitude of these income differentials and the mechanisms through which adoption contributes to income enhancement need to be better understood (Adebayo, 2021). This information is essential for demonstrating the economic benefits of adoption and motivating farmer interest (Olaniyi, 2020).

The challenges faced by farmers in accessing and adopting early maize technology have not been adequately documented in the study area. Barriers such as limited availability of improved seeds, high input costs, inadequate extension services, poor credit access, and lack of information about technology benefits likely constrain adoption (Ogunleye and Akintola, 2019). Understanding these challenges is essential for developing strategies to address them and facilitate wider adoption (Adebayo and Olaniyi, 2021).

The effectiveness of existing extension services and technology dissemination channels in promoting early maize technology adoption has not been evaluated in the study area. Assessing how well current extension approaches are working, and identifying gaps and opportunities for improvement, is crucial for enhancing technology diffusion and impact (Kamara et al., 2019). This is particularly important given the recognized importance of extension contact as a driver of adoption (Menkir et al., 2020).

The potential role of participatory approaches and stakeholder engagement in promoting early maize technology adoption in the study area requires exploration. Innovation platforms and participatory methods have been shown to be effective in disseminating maize technologies in other parts of Nigeria (Kamara et al., 2020). However, the applicability and effectiveness of these approaches in the Gwagwalada and Kuje context have not been empirically tested (Adeniyi et al., 2020).

The implications of early maize technology adoption for the broader goal of sustainable agricultural development in the FCT are not well understood. Beyond immediate productivity and food security effects, adoption may have implications for environmental sustainability, resilience to climate change, and rural livelihoods more broadly (Olanrewaju et al., 2020). A comprehensive understanding of these implications is needed to situate technology promotion within the broader context of sustainable development (Adebayo, 2020).

The policy and programmatic implications of the study findings have not been adequately articulated. Government and development partners invest substantial resources in agricultural technology development and dissemination, yet the evidence base for these investments in the study area is limited (FMARD, 2016). Generating empirical evidence on technology impact is essential for informing policy decisions and resource allocation (Olaniyi and Adebayo, 2020).

Given the foregoing, this study is designed to fill the identified research gaps by examining the impact of the adoption of early maize technology on productivity and food security status of farmers in Gwagwalada and Kuje area councils of FCT, Abuja. The study will specifically: (i) examine the rate of adoption of early maize varieties; (ii) determine the economic efficiency of farmers who adopted early maize varieties; (iii) determine factors influencing adoption of early maize varieties; (iv) determine the impact of adoption on income and food security; and (v) identify problems faced by farmers in adopting and utilizing the technology (Ogunleye, 2021).

1.3 Aim of the Study

The aim of this study is to analyze the impact of the adoption of early maize technology on productivity and food security status of farmers in Gwagwalada and Kuje area councils of the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja.

1.4 Objectives of the Study

The specific objectives of this study are to:

1. Examine the rate of adoption of early maize varieties among farmers in Gwagwalada and Kuje area councils of FCT, Abuja.
2. Determine the economic efficiency of farmers who adopted early maize varieties in the study area.
3. Determine the factors that influence the adoption of early maize varieties in the study area.
4. Determine the impact of adoption of early maize varieties on income and food security status of farmers in the study area.
5. Identify the problems faced by farmers in adopting early maize technology in the study area.

1.5 Research Questions

To achieve the objectives of this study, the following research questions are posed:

1. What is the rate of adoption of early maize varieties among farmers in Gwagwalada and Kuje area councils of FCT, Abuja?
2. What is the level of economic efficiency of farmers who adopted early maize varieties in the study area?
3. What are the factors that influence the adoption of early maize varieties in the study area?
4. What is the impact of adopting early maize varieties on the income and food security status of farmers in the study area?
5. What are the problems faced by farmers in adopting early maize technology in the study area?

1.6 Research Hypotheses

The following null and alternative hypotheses are formulated for this study:

Hypothesis One

• H₀: The adoption rate of early maize varieties among farmers in Gwagwalada and Kuje area councils is not significantly different from non-adoption.
• H₁: The adoption rate of early maize varieties among farmers in Gwagwalada and Kuje area councils is significantly different from non-adoption.

Hypothesis Two

• H₀: There is no significant difference in the economic efficiency between adopters and non-adopters of early maize varieties in the study area.
• H₁: There is a significant difference in the economic efficiency between adopters and non-adopters of early maize varieties in the study area.

Hypothesis Three

• H₀: Socioeconomic, institutional, and biophysical factors do not significantly influence the adoption of early maize varieties in the study area.
• H₁: Socioeconomic, institutional, and biophysical factors significantly influence the adoption of early maize varieties in the study area.

Hypothesis Four

• H₀: Adoption of early maize varieties does not have a significant positive impact on the income and food security status of farmers in the study area.
• H₁: Adoption of early maize varieties has a significant positive impact on the income and food security status of farmers in the study area.

Hypothesis Five

• H₀: Farmers in the study area do not face significant problems in adopting and utilizing early maize technology.
• H₁: Farmers in the study area face significant problems in adopting and utilizing early maize technology.

1.7 Significance of the Study

This study is significant for several reasons. First, it will contribute to the empirical body of knowledge on agricultural technology adoption and its impact on productivity and food security, specifically focusing on early maize technology in the FCT context. The findings will provide valuable evidence for researchers, policymakers, and development practitioners working on agricultural transformation and food security issues in Nigeria.

Second, the study will provide policy-relevant information that can guide decision-making regarding agricultural technology development, dissemination, and support services. The evidence on adoption rates, factors influencing adoption, and technology impact can inform the design of more effective policies and programs to promote technology adoption and enhance agricultural productivity and food security.

Third, the findings will assist extension service providers in designing more effective technology dissemination strategies. By identifying the key factors that influence adoption and the specific challenges faced by farmers, extension agencies can tailor their approaches to address the particular needs and circumstances of farmers in Gwagwalada and Kuje area councils.

Fourth, the study will contribute to understanding the effectiveness of early maize technology as a climate-smart agricultural practice. In the context of increasing climate variability and change, understanding how technologies like early maize can enhance adaptive capacity and reduce vulnerability is critical for developing sustainable agricultural systems.

Fifth, the research findings will be useful for agricultural input suppliers, including seed companies, in understanding the demand for early maize varieties and the factors that influence farmers’ seed choices. This information can guide investment decisions, seed production planning, and marketing strategies.

Sixth, the study will contribute to the broader discourse on food security and sustainable agricultural development in Nigeria. By demonstrating the potential of agricultural technology to improve productivity, income, and food security, the study can strengthen the case for investment in agricultural research and technology dissemination.

Seventh, the study will provide a benchmark for future research on technology adoption and agricultural transformation in the FCT and similar contexts. The findings will contribute to building a cumulative evidence base that can support ongoing and future research endeavors.

1.8 Scope of the Study

The study focuses on the analysis of the impact of adoption of early maize technology on productivity and food security status of farmers in Gwagwalada and Kuje area councils of the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. The geographical scope covers only these two area councils, which are among the significant maize-producing areas in the FCT.

The content scope encompasses early maize technology, defined as improved maize varieties that mature early (within 90-95 days) and possess traits such as drought tolerance, Striga resistance, and enhanced yield potential. The study examines adoption rates, factors influencing adoption, economic efficiency of adopters, and the impact of adoption on productivity, income, and food security status.

The study population consists of smallholder maize farmers in Gwagwalada and Kuje area councils who cultivate maize for subsistence and commercial purposes. The study is limited to the 2015/2016 farming season for primary data collection, though secondary data sources may provide additional context.

The analytical scope covers descriptive statistics to characterize the sample population, adoption indices to measure adoption rates, stochastic frontier analysis to determine economic efficiency, logit regression to identify factors influencing adoption, t-tests and food security lines to assess impact on income and food security, and descriptive analysis to identify problems faced by farmers.

1.9 Limitation of the Study

The study is subject to several limitations. First, the geographical scope is limited to only two area councils of the FCT, namely Gwagwalada and Kuje. While these are significant maize-producing areas, the findings may not be directly generalizable to other area councils in the FCT or other regions of Nigeria, given variations in agroecological conditions, socioeconomic contexts, and institutional environments.

Second, the study relies on primary data collected through structured questionnaires from a sample of farmers. The accuracy and reliability of the data depend on the honesty and recollection ability of respondents, which may introduce recall bias and measurement errors. Farmers may overstate or understate their adoption status, yields, income levels, and food consumption patterns.

Third, the cross-sectional nature of the study, covering a single farming season, may not capture temporal variations in adoption patterns, productivity outcomes, and food security status. Seasonal fluctuations in climatic conditions, market prices, and other factors may influence outcomes, and a longitudinal study would provide a more comprehensive understanding.

Fourth, the study focuses specifically on early maize technology and does not consider other agricultural technologies that may complement or substitute for early maize. Farmers often adopt multiple technologies simultaneously, and isolating the impact of early maize alone may not fully capture the complexity of farming systems.

Fifth, the study is constrained by time and financial resources, which limited the sample size and the scope of data collection. A larger sample and more extensive data collection, including field measurements and monitoring, would have strengthened the study findings.

Sixth, the study relies on self-reported food consumption data to assess food security status, which may be subject to measurement errors and underreporting. More objective measures of food security, such as anthropometric measurements, could have been used but were beyond the scope of this study.

Seventh, the study did not consider the broader policy and institutional environment that influences technology adoption and agricultural outcomes. Factors such as government policies, market conditions, and institutional frameworks, which may affect adoption, were not systematically examined.

Eighth, the study did not account for the potential endogeneity of adoption decisions, which could bias the estimated impacts. While statistical techniques such as logit regression can help control for some confounders, unobserved factors may still influence both adoption decisions and outcomes.

Ninth, the study did not explore the environmental implications of early maize technology adoption, including soil fertility management, biodiversity effects, and sustainability of intensive cultivation. Understanding these implications would provide a more comprehensive assessment of the technology.

Tenth, the study is based on data collected in a specific time period (2015/2016 farming season), and subsequent developments in technology availability, market conditions, and policy frameworks may have altered the adoption landscape and outcomes.

Despite these limitations, the study provides valuable insights into the impact of early maize technology adoption on productivity and food security status of farmers in Gwagwalada and Kuje area councils, contributing to the evidence base for agricultural technology promotion in the FCT and Nigeria.

1.10 Definition of Terms

Adoption: This refers to the decision by a farmer to use an improved maize variety on his or her farm. In this study, a farmer is considered an adopter if he or she planted any early maize variety during the farming season under study.

Early Maize Technology: This refers to improved maize varieties that mature within 90 to 95 days after planting, compared to traditional varieties that take 120 to 150 days to mature. These varieties often possess desirable traits such as drought tolerance, Striga resistance, and enhanced yield potential.

Economic Efficiency: This refers to the ability of a farmer to minimize input costs for a given output level (allocative efficiency) and maximize output for a given input level (technical efficiency). In this study, economic efficiency is measured using the stochastic frontier production function approach.

Farmer: This refers to an individual who cultivates maize on a piece of land, whether as owner, tenant, or sharecropper, and derives part of their livelihood from maize production.

Food Security: This is defined as the state in which all people, at all times, have physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life. In this study, food security status is measured based on daily per capita calorie consumption relative to the recommended daily calorie requirement.

Food Insecurity: This refers to a situation where individuals or households lack regular access to adequate food, either in terms of quantity, quality, or both. In this study, a farmer is considered food insecure if the household’s daily per capita calorie consumption falls below the recommended minimum.

Gwagwalada Area Council: One of the six area councils of the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja, located in the southern part of the FCT. It is known for agricultural activities, including maize production.

Kuje Area Council: One of the six area councils of the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja, located in the southeastern part of the FCT. It is an important maize-producing area with significant agricultural potential.

Productivity: This refers to the efficiency of production, measured as the ratio of output (maize yield) to inputs (land, labor, capital, and other resources). In this study, productivity is measured in terms of maize grain yield per hectare.

Striga: A parasitic weed (Striga hermonthica) that infests maize fields and significantly reduces yields. Early maize varieties developed in Nigeria often include resistance to Striga as a desirable trait.

Drought Tolerance: The ability of a maize variety to maintain reasonable yield levels under conditions of water stress. Early maize varieties developed for Nigerian conditions often possess drought tolerance as a key trait.

Calorie Consumption: The amount of energy obtained from food, measured in kilocalories (kcal). In this study, food security status is assessed based on the daily per capita calorie consumption of household members.

Extension Service: This refers to the system of providing information, advice, and training to farmers to help them improve their agricultural practices and adopt new technologies. In this study, extension contact refers to the frequency of interaction between farmers and extension agents.

Cooperative Society: A voluntary association of farmers who pool their resources for mutual benefit, often providing access to credit, inputs, and information. Membership in cooperative societies has been found to influence technology adoption.

Adoption Index: A measure used to quantify the level of adoption among farmers, often based on the proportion of farmers using a technology or the intensity of use.

Household: A group of people who live together and share meals, often comprising family members and sometimes extended relatives. In this study, household size refers to the number of persons residing in the farmer’s household.

Income: The amount of money earned from agricultural and non-agricultural activities. In this study, income includes revenues from crop sales, livestock sales, and off-farm income.

Smallholder Farmer: A farmer who cultivates a small plot of land, typically less than 5 hectares, using family labor and relying on agriculture as the primary source of livelihood.

Climate-Smart Agriculture: Agricultural practices that sustainably increase productivity, strengthen adaptation to climate change, and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Early maize technology is considered a climate-smart agricultural practice.

Technology Adoption: The process through which farmers become aware of, evaluate, decide to use, and implement a new agricultural technology. Technology adoption is a multi-stage process influenced by various factors.