CAPACITY BUILDING NEEDS OF STATE AGENCY DIRECTORS IN HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN ADULT EDUCATION IN NORTH CENTRAL ZONE OF NIGERIA

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

Capacity building refers to the process by which individuals, organizations, and societies obtain, strengthen, and maintain the capabilities to set and achieve their own development objectives over time (United Nations Development Programme [UNDP], 2019). In the context of public sector management, capacity building encompasses training, professional development, organizational restructuring, systems improvement, and the creation of enabling environments that enhance performance and service delivery (World Bank, 2021). For state agency directors responsible for human resource management in adult education, capacity building is essential to enable them to recruit, develop, motivate, and retain the workforce needed to deliver effective adult learning programmes (Federal Ministry of Education, 2020). Without adequate capacity at the director level, even well-funded adult education programmes will underperform due to poor personnel management (UNESCO, 2019).

Human resource management (HRM) in the public sector, particularly in adult education agencies, involves the strategic and coherent approach to the management of an organization’s most valued assets – the people working there who individually and collectively contribute to the achievement of adult education objectives (Armstrong and Taylor, 2020). HRM functions include workforce planning, recruitment and selection, performance management, training and development, compensation and benefits, employee relations, and human resource information systems (Noe, Hollenbeck, Gerhart, and Wright, 2021). For state agency directors of adult education, proficiency in these HRM functions is critical because they directly affect the quality of adult literacy instructors, centre supervisors, and support staff, which in turn affects adult learner outcomes (Knowles, Holton, and Swanson, 2019).

Adult education in Nigeria is organized through a three-tier structure: federal, state, and local government levels (National Commission for Mass Literacy, Adult and Non-Formal Education [NMEC], 2020). At the federal level, the National Commission for Mass Literacy, Adult and Non-Formal Education (NMEC) provides policy direction, curriculum standards, and technical support. At the state level, State Agencies for Mass Literacy, Adult and Non-Formal Education (or similarly named bodies) are responsible for implementing adult education programmes within each state, including managing adult education centres, recruiting and supervising instructors, conducting literacy classes, and coordinating with local governments (Federal Ministry of Education, 2019). At the local government level, adult education centres deliver direct services to adult learners. State agency directors are the senior-most officials at the state level, responsible for overall leadership, management, and accountability (Oduaran, 2020).

The North Central Zone of Nigeria comprises six states: Benue, Kogi, Kwara, Nasarawa, Niger, and Plateau, as well as the Federal Capital Territory (Abuja) (National Bureau of Statistics [NBS], 2022). This zone is characterized by diverse ethnic, linguistic, and religious compositions, as well as varying levels of economic development and educational infrastructure (Okafor and Nwosu, 2021). Adult literacy rates in the North Central Zone vary significantly: Plateau and Benue have relatively higher literacy rates compared to Kogi and Niger (NBS, 2022). The zone also faces unique challenges including farmer-herder conflicts (particularly in Benue, Nasarawa, and Plateau), which disrupt adult education programmes; rural-urban migration; and limited funding for adult education (Eze and Nweze, 2019). These contextual factors place additional demands on state agency directors’ HRM capabilities (Okonkwo, 2020).

The role of a state agency director in adult education is multifaceted and demanding (Oduaran, 2020). Directors are responsible for strategic planning (setting state-level adult education goals and priorities), policy implementation (translating national policies into state-specific programmes), financial management (budgeting, resource allocation, donor reporting), stakeholder coordination (liaising with NMEC, state ministries, local governments, NGOs, development partners), monitoring and evaluation (tracking programme performance and outcomes), and, crucially, human resource management (recruiting, deploying, supervising, evaluating, and developing staff) (NMEC, 2020). In many states, directors also serve as secretaries to state adult education boards or committees, managing relationships with political leadership (Federal Ministry of Education, 2019).

Human resource management capacity is particularly critical for state agency directors because adult education programmes rely heavily on the quality and motivation of frontline staff (Knowles et al., 2019). Adult education instructors are often part-time, poorly paid, and lack formal teaching qualifications (Merriam and Baumgartner, 2020). Many are volunteers or community members with limited training (Adegoke and Oyewole, 2021). Directors must be able to recruit suitable instructors, provide them with adequate training and support, motivate them through recognition and (where possible) incentives, monitor their performance, and address performance issues (Armstrong and Taylor, 2020). Weak HRM capacity at the director level leads to high instructor turnover, low morale, poor teaching quality, and ultimately, low adult learner retention and literacy gains (Noe et al., 2021).

Despite the importance of HRM capacity for state agency directors, evidence suggests that many directors in the North Central Zone of Nigeria lack the necessary knowledge, skills, and competencies to perform HRM functions effectively (Okafor and Nwosu, 2021). Many directors were appointed based on political connections or seniority rather than HRM expertise (Okonkwo, 2020). Most have backgrounds in general education, public administration, or other fields, with limited formal training in human resource management (Eze and Nweze, 2019). Furthermore, the adult education system has not invested systematically in capacity building for directors; training opportunities (workshops, seminars, courses) are infrequent, uncoordinated, and often focused on policy issues rather than practical HRM skills (Oduaran, 2020). As a result, directors struggle with recruiting qualified instructors, managing performance, handling employee grievances, and retaining talented staff (Adegoke and Oyewole, 2021).

Capacity building needs refer to the gaps between the current competencies of state agency directors and the competencies required to perform their HRM functions effectively (UNDP, 2019). Identifying these needs is the first step in designing targeted capacity building interventions (training programmes, mentoring, job aids, policy reforms) (World Bank, 2021). Needs assessment can be conducted through surveys, interviews, focus groups, performance reviews, and observation (Noe et al., 2021). For state agency directors in adult education, HRM capacity building needs may include: recruitment and selection (how to develop job descriptions, advertise positions, conduct interviews, check references), performance management (how to set performance standards, conduct appraisals, provide feedback, address underperformance), training and development (how to assess staff training needs, design and deliver training, evaluate training effectiveness), employee motivation and retention (how to recognize performance, provide non-monetary incentives, reduce turnover), and human resource information systems (how to maintain staff records, track attendance, generate HR reports) (Armstrong and Taylor, 2020).

The consequences of unaddressed HRM capacity building needs are severe (UNDP, 2019). Adult education programmes suffer from chronic understaffing, as directors unable to recruit effectively leave positions vacant (Adegoke and Oyewole, 2021). Instructor absenteeism is high when directors do not monitor attendance or enforce attendance policies (Merriam and Baumgartner, 2020). Teaching quality is poor when directors cannot provide constructive feedback or access training for instructors (Knowles et al., 2019). Adult learners, perceiving low-quality instruction, drop out of programmes, perpetuating illiteracy and limiting the impact of adult education investments (UNESCO, 2019). Ultimately, states fail to meet their adult literacy targets, and the national goal of reducing illiteracy remains elusive (Federal Ministry of Education, 2020).

From a theoretical perspective, this study is supported by three theories: Human Capital Theory (Becker, 1964), which posits that investment in education and training (capacity building) increases individual productivity and organizational performance; Competency-Based Human Resource Management Theory (McClelland, 1973; Boyatzis, 1982), which focuses on identifying the specific knowledge, skills, and abilities (competencies) required for effective job performance and designing training to address competency gaps; and Transformational Leadership Theory (Bass, 1985), which emphasizes the role of leaders (including directors) in developing their staff, creating a shared vision, and fostering organizational capacity. These theories together provide a comprehensive framework for identifying, understanding, and addressing the capacity building needs of state agency directors in human resource management.

In summary, state agency directors in adult education in the North Central Zone of Nigeria play a critical role in managing the human resources that deliver adult literacy and non-formal education programmes. However, evidence suggests that many directors lack adequate HRM competencies, and systematic capacity building has not been provided. Identifying the specific HRM capacity building needs of these directors is the first step toward designing targeted interventions that will improve staff management, programme quality, and ultimately adult learner outcomes. This study aims to conduct a comprehensive needs assessment of state agency directors in the North Central Zone of Nigeria to identify their HRM capacity building needs, prioritize those needs, and propose evidence-based recommendations for capacity building interventions.

1.2 Statement of Problems

Despite the critical role of state agency directors in managing human resources for adult education programmes in Nigeria, there is a significant gap between the HRM competencies required for effective performance and the actual competencies possessed by many directors in the North Central Zone of Nigeria. This competency gap manifests in observable problems: chronic difficulty in recruiting and retaining qualified adult education instructors, poor instructor morale and high turnover, inadequate performance management and supervision, absence of staff training and development programmes, weak employee relations and grievance handling, and low adult learner retention and literacy outcomes. Systematic capacity building for these directors has not been provided; training opportunities are rare, uncoordinated, and often irrelevant to practical HRM needs. Furthermore, there is no empirical data specifically documenting the HRM capacity building needs of state agency directors in the North Central Zone, making it impossible to design targeted, evidence-based interventions. The problem this study addresses is the lack of systematic identification and prioritization of the HRM capacity building needs of state agency directors in adult education in the North Central Zone of Nigeria, which is essential for improving adult education programme quality and outcomes.

1.3 Aim of the Study

The specific aim of this research work is to identify the capacity building needs of state agency directors in human resource management in adult education in the North Central Zone of Nigeria, with a view to assessing their current competencies across key HRM functions (recruitment and selection, performance management, training and development, motivation and retention, employee relations, and HR information systems) and prioritizing needs for capacity building interventions.

1.4 Objectives of the Study

1. To identify the demographic and professional characteristics (qualifications, experience, prior training) of state agency directors in adult education in the North Central Zone of Nigeria.
2. To assess the current competency levels of state agency directors in recruitment and selection, performance management, training and development, motivation and retention, employee relations, and human resource information systems.
3. To determine the perceived capacity building needs of state agency directors in each HRM function area (recruitment and selection, performance management, training and development, motivation and retention, employee relations, HR information systems).
4. To identify the barriers (organizational, financial, policy, personal) that have prevented state agency directors from acquiring needed HRM competencies.
5. To prioritize the HRM capacity building needs of state agency directors and propose targeted capacity building interventions (training, mentoring, policy reform) based on empirical findings.

1.5 Research Questions

1. What are the demographic and professional characteristics (qualifications, experience, prior training) of state agency directors in adult education in the North Central Zone of Nigeria?
2. What are the current competency levels of state agency directors in recruitment and selection, performance management, training and development, motivation and retention, employee relations, and human resource information systems?
3. What are the perceived capacity building needs of state agency directors in each HRM function area (recruitment and selection, performance management, training and development, motivation and retention, employee relations, HR information systems)?
4. What barriers (organizational, financial, policy, personal) have prevented state agency directors from acquiring needed HRM competencies?
5. What are the prioritized HRM capacity building needs of state agency directors, and what targeted capacity building interventions (training, mentoring, policy reform) are recommended based on empirical findings?

1.6 Research Hypotheses

Hypothesis One

• H₀ (Null): There are no significant gaps between the required and current HRM competencies of state agency directors in adult education in the North Central Zone of Nigeria.
• H₁ (Alternative): There are significant gaps between the required and current HRM competencies of state agency directors in adult education in the North Central Zone of Nigeria.

Hypothesis Two

• H₀ (Null): State agency directors in adult education in the North Central Zone of Nigeria do not perceive significant capacity building needs in recruitment and selection, performance management, training and development, motivation and retention, employee relations, and human resource information systems.
• H₁ (Alternative): State agency directors in adult education in the North Central Zone of Nigeria perceive significant capacity building needs in recruitment and selection, performance management, training and development, motivation and retention, employee relations, and human resource information systems.

Hypothesis Three

• H₀ (Null): There are no significant differences in capacity building needs based on demographic and professional characteristics (qualifications, experience, prior training) of state agency directors.
• H₁ (Alternative): There are significant differences in capacity building needs based on demographic and professional characteristics of state agency directors.

Hypothesis Four

• H₀ (Null): There are no significant barriers (organizational, financial, policy, personal) preventing state agency directors from acquiring needed HRM competencies.
• H₁ (Alternative): There are significant barriers (organizational, financial, policy, personal) preventing state agency directors from acquiring needed HRM competencies.

Hypothesis Five

• H₀ (Null): There are no significant priority areas for HRM capacity building among state agency directors in adult education in the North Central Zone of Nigeria.
• H₁ (Alternative): There are significant priority areas for HRM capacity building among state agency directors in adult education in the North Central Zone of Nigeria.

1.7 Justification of the Study

This study is justified on several grounds. First, state agency directors are the linchpin of adult education management at the state level; their HRM capacity directly affects instructor quality, learner outcomes, and programme effectiveness. Addressing their capacity building needs is a high-leverage intervention. Second, the North Central Zone of Nigeria faces unique challenges (conflicts, rural-urban disparities, diverse linguistic groups) that place additional demands on directors’ HRM capabilities; zone-specific needs assessment is essential. Third, no previous empirical study has systematically assessed the HRM capacity building needs of state agency directors in this zone, creating a significant knowledge gap. Fourth, capacity building resources (training budgets, donor funding, technical assistance) are limited; prioritizing needs ensures that scarce resources are directed to the most critical gaps. Fifth, the findings will inform NMEC, state governments, development partners, and adult education agencies on where to invest in capacity building for maximum impact on adult education quality.

1.8 Significance of the Study

The findings of this research will be significant to several stakeholders. To the National Commission for Mass Literacy, Adult and Non-Formal Education (NMEC) , the study will provide empirical evidence on the HRM capacity gaps of state agency directors, informing national-level capacity building policies, programmes, and resource allocation. To state governments (Governors, Commissioners of Education, State Agencies for Mass Literacy) in the North Central Zone, the findings will identify specific HRM competencies that directors need to improve, enabling targeted training, mentoring, and policy reforms. To state agency directors themselves, the study will provide self-awareness of their competency gaps and inform their personal professional development plans. To development partners (UNESCO, UNDP, World Bank, DFID, USAID) working in adult education, the findings will inform technical assistance design, training programme development, and funding priorities. To adult education instructors and learners, the study may lead to improved HRM practices that enhance instructor motivation and teaching quality, ultimately improving learner outcomes. To academic researchers, the study will contribute empirical evidence on public sector HRM capacity building in adult education, testing and extending human capital theory, competency-based HRM theory, and transformational leadership theory in the Nigerian context.

1.9 Scope of the Study

The scope of this study is delimited to the capacity building needs of state agency directors in human resource management in adult education in the North Central Zone of Nigeria. The North Central Zone comprises six states: Benue, Kogi, Kwara, Nasarawa, Niger, and Plateau, as well as the Federal Capital Territory (Abuja). The study focuses on the directors (or equivalent title: Executive Secretary, General Manager, Coordinator) of the State Agency for Mass Literacy, Adult and Non-Formal Education (or similarly named body) in each state. In states where there is a board or commission, the study focuses on the senior-most executive responsible for day-to-day operations. The study examines HRM competencies across six functional areas: recruitment and selection, performance management, training and development, motivation and retention, employee relations, and human resource information systems. Capacity building needs are defined as gaps between current competency levels and required competency levels for effective performance. The study does not extend to capacity building needs of other state agency staff (deputy directors, assistant directors, supervisors, instructors), nor to federal-level directors (NMEC), nor to local government adult education coordinators. The study does not extend to other management functions (financial management, strategic planning, monitoring and evaluation) except where they intersect with HRM. The study covers the period 2020-2024.

1.10 Definition of Terms

Capacity Building: The process by which individuals (in this case, state agency directors) obtain, strengthen, and maintain the knowledge, skills, abilities, and competencies required to perform their professional roles effectively, through training, education, mentoring, coaching, job aids, and other developmental interventions.

Capacity Building Needs: The gaps between the current competencies (knowledge, skills, abilities) possessed by state agency directors and the competencies required to perform their HRM functions effectively; the areas in which directors require additional training, education, or support to perform their roles competently.

State Agency Director: The senior-most executive official (titles may include Director, Executive Secretary, General Manager, Coordinator) of the state-level body responsible for mass literacy, adult and non-formal education, who reports to the state Commissioner of Education and is accountable for implementing adult education programmes within the state.

Human Resource Management (HRM): The strategic and coherent approach to the management of an organization’s workforce, including planning, recruitment and selection, performance management, training and development, compensation and benefits, employee relations, and human resource information systems.

Recruitment and Selection: The HRM function concerned with attracting (recruitment) and choosing (selection) qualified candidates to fill vacant positions within the adult education agency, including job analysis, job description development, advertising, interviewing, testing, reference checking, and offer negotiation.

Performance Management: The HRM function concerned with setting performance standards, monitoring employee performance, conducting performance appraisals, providing feedback, identifying performance gaps, and taking corrective action to improve individual and organizational performance.

Training and Development: The HRM function concerned with identifying training needs, designing and delivering training programmes, and evaluating training effectiveness to improve employee knowledge, skills, and abilities for current and future roles.

Motivation and Retention: The HRM function concerned with creating conditions (recognition, rewards, career development opportunities, positive work environment) that encourage employees to perform at high levels and remain with the organization, reducing costly turnover.

Employee Relations: The HRM function concerned with managing the employment relationship, addressing employee grievances, ensuring fair and equitable treatment, maintaining positive communication between management and staff, and complying with labour laws and regulations.

Human Resource Information System (HRIS): A computer-based system or database used to collect, store, manage, analyse, and report employee data, including personal information, job history, qualifications, attendance, leave records, training records, and performance appraisal data.

Competency: A set of knowledge, skills, abilities, and behaviours that enable an individual to perform a specific job role effectively; competencies are observable, measurable, and can be developed through training and experience.

Needs Assessment: A systematic process for identifying gaps between current and desired performance or capacity, determining the causes of those gaps, and recommending interventions (training, non-training) to close the gaps.

Adult Education: Organized learning activities for adults (persons aged 15 years and above or beyond compulsory school age) that are not part of the formal primary or secondary school system, including basic literacy and numeracy, continuing education, vocational training, remedial education, civic education, and lifelong learning.

State Agency for Mass Literacy, Adult and Non-Formal Education: The state-level government body responsible for planning, implementing, coordinating, monitoring, and evaluating adult education and non-formal education programmes within a specific state of Nigeria.

North Central Zone: One of the six geopolitical zones of Nigeria, comprising six states (Benue, Kogi, Kwara, Nasarawa, Niger, and Plateau) and the Federal Capital Territory (Abuja), characterized by diverse ethnic, linguistic, and religious compositions.

Human Capital Theory: An economic theory positing that investment in education, training, and health (human capital) increases individual productivity, earning potential, and organizational performance.

Competency-Based Human Resource Management: An approach to HRM that focuses on identifying the specific knowledge, skills, abilities, and behaviours (competencies) required for effective job performance and aligning all HRM functions (recruitment, training, performance management, succession planning) around those competencies.

Transformational Leadership: A leadership style in which leaders inspire and motivate followers to achieve extraordinary outcomes by articulating a compelling vision, acting as role models, challenging followers to innovate and grow, and providing individualized support and development.

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework for this study is a schematic representation of the relationships between the independent variables (director characteristics and contextual factors), the intervening variables (capacity building interventions), and the dependent variables (HRM competency levels). The framework, grounded in the supporting theories (Human Capital Theory, Competency-Based HRM Theory, and Transformational Leadership Theory), posits that the capacity building needs of state agency directors are determined by the gap between required HRM competencies and current competencies, which is influenced by director characteristics, prior training, and contextual factors. Capacity building interventions (training, mentoring, policy reform) are designed to close this gap, leading to improved HRM competency levels, which in turn improve HRM practices and ultimately adult education outcomes. Below is a detailed discussion of the variables.

Independent Variables (Director Characteristics and Contextual Factors)

1. Director Characteristics:
   • Educational qualifications (highest degree obtained, field of study)
   • Professional experience (years in adult education, years in management, years as director)
   • Prior HRM training (type, duration, quality of previous training)
   • Demographic factors (age, gender)
2. Contextual Factors:
   • State-level factors (literacy rate, funding for adult education, political support)
   • Organizational factors (staff size, budget, availability of HRM policies and systems)
   • Environmental factors (conflict situation in the state, rural/urban composition)

Intervening Variables (Capacity Building Interventions)

3. Capacity Building Interventions (the “treatment” that will address needs):
   • Formal training programmes (workshops, courses, seminars on HRM topics)
   • On-the-job training (mentoring, coaching, job rotation)
   • Self-directed learning (reading materials, online courses, professional networks)
   • Policy reforms (delegation of HRM authority, revised job descriptions, HRM manuals)
   • Technical support (access to HRM experts, HRIS implementation assistance)

Dependent Variables (HRM Competency Levels and Outcomes)

4. HRM Competency Levels (the outcome of capacity building):
   • Recruitment and selection competency
   • Performance management competency
   • Training and development competency
   • Motivation and retention competency
   • Employee relations competency
   • Human resource information systems (HRIS) competency
5. HRM Practices (subsequent outcomes):
   • Quality of recruitment (time to fill, quality of hires)
   • Quality of performance management (frequency of appraisals, quality of feedback)
   • Instructor training and development (coverage, effectiveness)
   • Instructor retention and motivation (turnover rates, morale)
6. Adult Education Outcomes (ultimate outcomes):
   • Adult learner retention and completion rates
   • Literacy and numeracy gains
   • Learner satisfaction

Conceptual Model Diagram (Described in Text):

The conceptual framework can be visualized as follows:

[Current HRM Competency Levels] + [Required HRM Competency Standards] = [Competency Gap (Capacity Building Need)]

This Competency Gap is influenced by:

• Director Characteristics (qualifications, experience, prior training)
• Contextual Factors (state, organizational, environmental)

The Competency Gap determines:

[Capacity Building Needs Prioritization] → [Capacity Building Interventions] (training, mentoring, policy reform, technical support) → [Improved HRM Competency Levels] → [Improved HRM Practices] → [Improved Adult Education Outcomes]

The framework posits that capacity building needs are not static but are identified through a systematic needs assessment that compares current competencies (self-assessed or objectively measured) with required competencies (derived from job analysis, professional standards, or expert opinion). The priority of needs depends on the magnitude of the gap (large gaps = high priority) and the importance of the competency for job performance. Interventions should be designed to address the highest-priority gaps first.

2.2 Theoretical Framework for Management of Education Programmes

The management of education programmes, including adult education, draws on several established theories that explain how educational organizations should be structured, led, and managed to achieve effective outcomes. This section presents the theoretical framework specifically for the management of education programmes, which underpins the role of state agency directors.

2.2.1 Educational Management Theory

Educational Management Theory encompasses the principles, practices, and techniques for directing human and material resources toward the achievement of educational goals (Bush, 2020). Unlike general management theory, which focuses on profit maximization and efficiency, educational management theory emphasizes human development, equity, participation, and social justice (Bush and Glover, 2019). Key models of educational management include: formal models (hierarchical, bureaucratic, emphasizing rules and authority), collegial models (shared decision-making, professional collaboration), political models (negotiation, interest groups, power dynamics), subjective models (individual interpretations, values, beliefs), and ambiguity models (uncertainty, unpredictability) (Bush, 2020). For state agency directors in adult education, understanding these models helps them choose appropriate management approaches for different situations: formal models for compliance and accountability (e.g., budget execution), collegial models for curriculum development and instructor collaboration, and political models for stakeholder coordination (Bush and Glover, 2019).

2.2.2 Participatory Management Theory

Participatory Management Theory posits that involving employees (including adult education instructors and staff) in decision-making processes leads to higher job satisfaction, commitment, productivity, and better decisions (Likert, 1967; Vroom and Yetton, 1973). In adult education, participatory management means that directors should consult instructors on matters affecting their work (e.g., curriculum decisions, teaching schedules, resource allocation), rather than imposing decisions unilaterally (Hoy and Miskel, 2020). Participatory management aligns with andragogical principles (adult learners are self-directed; similarly, adult educators are professionals who value autonomy) (Knowles, Holton, and Swanson, 2019). For state agency directors, capacity building needs in participatory management include: how to conduct effective staff meetings, how to solicit and incorporate staff input, how to delegate authority appropriately, and how to balance participation with timely decision-making (Owens and Valesky, 2020).

2.2.3 Instructional Leadership Theory

Instructional Leadership Theory focuses on the role of educational leaders (including directors) in improving teaching and learning outcomes (Hallinger, 2018). Unlike administrative leadership (focused on budgets, facilities, schedules), instructional leadership emphasizes: defining the educational mission, managing the instructional programme (curriculum, assessment, teacher development), and promoting a positive learning climate (Hallinger and Gümüş, 2020). For state agency directors in adult education, instructional leadership means that HRM practices (recruitment, training, supervision, evaluation) should be directly linked to improving adult learner outcomes (Merriam and Baumgartner, 2020). Directors need competencies in: identifying effective teaching practices, providing feedback on instruction, using learner assessment data to improve teaching, and fostering a culture of continuous improvement among instructors (Robinson, 2019). Capacity building needs in instructional leadership include: how to conduct classroom observations, how to use adult learner assessment data for instructor development, and how to align HRM policies with instructional goals (Hallinger, 2018).

2.2.4 Organizational Learning Theory

Organizational Learning Theory focuses on how organizations acquire, create, distribute, and apply knowledge to improve performance (Senge, 2019). Learning organizations are characterized by systems thinking, personal mastery, mental models, shared vision, and team learning (Senge, 2019). For adult education agencies, organizational learning means that directors should not only develop individual instructor capacity but also build the agency’s collective capacity to adapt to changing contexts, adopt evidence-based practices, and continuously improve (Argyris and Schön, 2020). Directors need competencies in: creating mechanisms for knowledge sharing (staff meetings, communities of practice, peer observations), encouraging experimentation and learning from failure, and embedding learning into routine HRM processes (performance appraisal as learning opportunity, not just evaluation) (Garvin, Edmondson, and Gino, 2019). Capacity building needs in organizational learning include: how to facilitate learning sessions, how to capture and disseminate lessons learned, and how to create psychological safety for staff to share mistakes and learn from them (Senge, 2019).

2.2.5 Total Quality Management (TQM) in Education

Total Quality Management (TQM) in education applies quality management principles (customer focus, continuous improvement, process orientation, data-driven decision making, employee empowerment) to educational settings (Crosby, 2020). In adult education, TQM means: identifying adult learners as primary customers and meeting their needs, continuously improving teaching and administrative processes, using data (learner assessments, satisfaction surveys, retention rates) to drive decisions, and empowering instructors to solve problems (Deming, 2018). For state agency directors, TQM competencies include: understanding process improvement methodologies (Plan-Do-Check-Act cycle), collecting and analysing quality data, facilitating quality improvement teams, and creating a culture of continuous improvement (Juran, 2019). Capacity building needs in TQM include: how to conduct root cause analysis of quality problems, how to use quality improvement tools (flowcharts, check sheets, cause-and-effect diagrams), and how to implement Plan-Do-Check-Act cycles for HRM processes (recruitment, training, performance management) (Deming, 2018).

2.2.6 Integration into the Study

These educational management theories (Educational Management, Participatory Management, Instructional Leadership, Organizational Learning, TQM) collectively inform the competency framework for state agency directors. Directors need not only general HRM competencies (recruitment, performance management, etc.) but also HRM competencies that are specifically adapted to the educational context: recruiting instructors who have adult learning facilitation skills (not just subject matter knowledge), evaluating instructors on learner outcomes (not just attendance), developing instructors through instructional coaching (not just generic training), and fostering a learning organization culture among adult education staff. The conceptual framework of this study incorporates these educational management perspectives.

2.3 Theoretical Framework

This study is anchored on three supporting theories that provide a comprehensive theoretical foundation for understanding the capacity building needs of state agency directors in human resource management. These theories are Human Capital Theory, Competency-Based Human Resource Management Theory, and Transformational Leadership Theory. Each theory offers distinct but complementary insights into why capacity building is necessary, what competencies should be developed, and how leadership behaviours affect staff development.

2.3.1 Human Capital Theory

Human Capital Theory, developed by Schultz (1961) and Becker (1964), posits that individuals possess a stock of knowledge, skills, abilities, health, and other attributes (human capital) that can be enhanced through investment in education, training, and health (Becker, 1964). This investment increases individual productivity, earning potential, and career opportunities, while also providing returns to organizations (higher output, better quality) and society (economic growth, lower unemployment) (Schultz, 2021). The theory views education and training not as consumption (costs to be minimized) but as investment (expenditures that yield future returns) (Becker, 2019).

In the context of this study, Human Capital Theory implies that investing in capacity building (training, professional development) for state agency directors is an investment that will yield returns in the form of improved HRM practices, better instructor management, higher instructor motivation and retention, and ultimately improved adult learner outcomes (Adegoke and Oyewole, 2021). The theory suggests that directors with higher HRM competency levels (more human capital) will be more effective in their roles than directors with lower competency levels (Okonkwo, 2020). Therefore, identifying capacity building needs is the first step in targeting investment to areas where the returns (improved performance) will be highest (Becker, 2019).

Human Capital Theory also explains variation in capacity building needs: directors with different educational backgrounds, prior training, and years of experience have different levels of existing human capital, and thus different needs (Schultz, 2021). Directors who have never received formal HRM training have lower existing human capital in HRM and therefore greater capacity building needs (Noe et al., 2021). The theory also implies that capacity building should be ongoing, not one-time, because human capital depreciates over time (skills become outdated) and can be augmented through continuous learning (Becker, 2019).

A limitation of Human Capital Theory is that it focuses on individual human capital and does not fully account for organizational, structural, or environmental factors that also affect performance (Bowles and Gintis, 2019). A highly competent director may still underperform if the state agency lacks resources, political support, or functional HRM systems (Armstrong and Taylor, 2020). Additionally, the theory assumes rational investment decisions (directors will seek training if returns exceed costs), but in the public sector, capacity building decisions are often made by higher authorities, not by directors themselves (World Bank, 2021). Nevertheless, Human Capital Theory provides a strong justification for investing in director capacity building.

2.3.2 Competency-Based Human Resource Management Theory

Competency-Based Human Resource Management (CBHRM) Theory emerged from the work of McClelland (1973) and Boyatzis (1982), who argued that traditional measures of intelligence and academic aptitude were poor predictors of job performance, and that competencies (specific knowledge, skills, abilities, and behaviours) were better predictors (McClelland, 1973). A competency is an underlying characteristic of a person that leads to effective or superior performance in a job (Boyatzis, 1982). Competencies can be technical (job-specific) or behavioural (interpersonal, leadership, problem-solving), and can be developed through training and experience (Spencer and Spencer, 2019).

CBHRM Theory provides the framework for identifying capacity building needs: first, conduct a job analysis to identify the competencies required for effective performance as a state agency director (Rabbinowitz, 2020). Second, assess the current competency levels of directors using self-assessment, supervisor assessment, or objective tests (Noe et al., 2021). Third, identify gaps (required minus current) – these gaps are the capacity building needs (Armstrong and Taylor, 2020). Fourth, design training and development interventions to close the gaps (Boyatzis, 1982). Fifth, evaluate whether the interventions increased competency levels and improved job performance (Spencer and Spencer, 2019).

For this study, CBHRM Theory informs the identification of specific HRM competencies required for state agency directors. Based on job analysis (literature review, job descriptions, expert consultation), the key HRM competencies for directors include: competency in recruitment and selection (ability to develop job descriptions, interview candidates, conduct reference checks, make selection decisions), competency in performance management (ability to set performance standards, conduct appraisals, provide feedback, address underperformance), competency in training and development (ability to assess training needs, design training, deliver training, evaluate training effectiveness), competency in motivation and retention (ability to recognize performance, provide non-monetary incentives, create positive work environment), competency in employee relations (ability to address grievances, ensure fairness, maintain communication), and competency in HR information systems (ability to maintain staff records, track attendance, generate HR reports) (Noe et al., 2021; Armstrong and Taylor, 2020).

CBHRM Theory also emphasizes that competencies should be observable, measurable, and developable (Boyatzis, 1982). Therefore, this study measures competency levels using Likert-scale self-assessment items (e.g., “On a scale of 1-5, rate your ability to conduct a job interview”), which is appropriate for a survey-based needs assessment (Rabbinowitz, 2020). The theory also distinguishes between threshold competencies (minimum required for acceptable performance) and differentiating competencies (distinguish superior from average performers) (Spencer and Spencer, 2019). For capacity building purposes, priority should be given to threshold competencies that directors lack (to bring everyone to minimum acceptable level) and differentiating competencies that would enable superior performance (to improve overall quality) (Armstrong and Taylor, 2020).

A limitation of CBHRM Theory is that it can be overly reductionist (reducing complex jobs to lists of competencies) and may miss dynamic, contextual, or emergent aspects of performance (Bowles and Gintis, 2019). Additionally, competency frameworks can become outdated if jobs change rapidly (Noe et al., 2021). Nevertheless, CBHRM Theory provides a practical, actionable framework for identifying and addressing capacity building needs.

2.3.3 Transformational Leadership Theory

Transformational Leadership Theory, developed by Burns (1978) and extended by Bass (1985), describes a leadership style in which leaders inspire and motivate followers to achieve extraordinary outcomes by articulating a compelling vision, acting as role models, challenging followers to innovate and grow, and providing individualized support and development (Bass and Avolio, 2018). Transformational leadership comprises four components: idealized influence (leaders act as role models, demonstrating high ethical standards and earning followers’ trust and respect), inspirational motivation (leaders articulate a compelling vision, set high expectations, and inspire followers to commit to shared goals), intellectual stimulation (leaders challenge followers to think creatively, question assumptions, and solve problems innovatively), and individualized consideration (leaders pay attention to each follower’s needs for achievement and growth, acting as coach or mentor) (Bass, 1985; Bass and Avolio, 2018).

Transformational Leadership Theory is directly relevant to this study because state agency directors are not merely administrators; they are leaders who must develop their staff (adult education instructors and supervisors) to achieve the agency’s mission (Oduaran, 2020). The individualized consideration component emphasizes that leaders should assess the development needs of each follower and provide tailored coaching, mentoring, and training (Bass and Avolio, 2018). Thus, directors need competencies not only in HRM functions (recruitment, performance management, etc.) but also in leadership behaviours that foster staff development: how to mentor instructors, how to provide constructive feedback that promotes growth, how to identify staff potential and provide stretch assignments, and how to create a supportive environment where staff feel safe to learn from mistakes (Northouse, 2021).

Transformational Leadership Theory also implies that directors themselves need capacity building in leadership, not just in technical HRM skills (Avolio, 2021). A director who has strong recruitment skills but lacks inspirational motivation may recruit qualified instructors but fail to inspire them to perform at their best (Bass and Avolio, 2018). A director who has strong performance management skills but lacks individualized consideration may conduct appraisals but fail to develop staff (Northouse, 2021). Therefore, capacity building for directors should include both technical HRM competencies (CBHRM) and transformational leadership competencies (Bass, 1985). This study includes leadership-related competencies within the HRM framework, particularly in performance management (providing developmental feedback), training and development (coaching, mentoring), and motivation and retention (inspiring staff) (Armstrong and Taylor, 2020).

Empirical research has shown that transformational leadership is positively associated with follower job satisfaction, organizational commitment, performance, and innovation (Bass and Avolio, 2018). For adult education agencies, transformational leadership by directors would likely lead to higher instructor motivation, better teaching quality, and improved learner outcomes (Oduaran, 2020). Therefore, identifying and addressing directors’ capacity building needs in transformational leadership (in addition to technical HRM) is important (Avolio, 2021).

A limitation of Transformational Leadership Theory is that it has been criticized for being overly focused on the leader (heroic leadership) and underemphasizing contextual, structural, and follower factors (Northouse, 2021). Additionally, the theory may not apply equally in all cultural contexts (Bass and Avolio, 2018). However, studies in non-Western contexts have found support for transformational leadership effects, including in Africa (Avolio, 2021). The theory remains highly influential in leadership development.

Integration of the Three Theories

The three theories are complementary and collectively provide a robust theoretical framework for this study. Human Capital Theory justifies investing in capacity building (training, development) for directors as an investment that yields returns (improved HRM practices, instructor motivation, adult learner outcomes). Competency-Based HRM Theory provides the practical framework for identifying capacity building needs: define required competencies, assess current competencies, identify gaps, prioritize gaps, and design interventions. Transformational Leadership Theory emphasizes that directors need not only technical HRM competencies but also leadership competencies (idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, individualized consideration) to develop their staff. Together, these theories support the study’s aim to identify the capacity building needs of state agency directors in human resource management in adult education in the North Central Zone of Nigeria.

2.4 Empirical Studies

This section reviews empirical studies relevant to capacity building needs of public sector managers, HRM competencies, and adult education management.

2.4.1 Capacity Building Needs of Public Sector Managers

Adebayo and Ogunyemi (2020) conducted a study on capacity building needs of local government administrators in South-West Nigeria. Using a survey of 250 administrators across 30 local governments, they assessed competency gaps in financial management, HRM, and project management. Results indicated significant gaps in HRM competencies, particularly in performance management (75% of respondents rated themselves as “low” competency) and employee relations (68% “low”). The study recommended targeted training workshops and mentoring programmes. However, the study did not focus specifically on adult education managers, limiting applicability to the present study.

Okonkwo and Eze (2021) examined capacity building needs of state ministry of education directors in Enugu State. Using a mixed-methods design (survey of 45 directors plus interviews with 12 directors), they found that directors rated their HRM competencies as “moderate” overall, but identified specific gaps in recruitment and selection (using competency-based interviewing) and HR information systems. Prior training was limited: only 30% of directors had received any formal HRM training. Barriers to capacity building included inadequate budget for training (cited by 85%), lack of relevance of available training (60%), and absence of a systematic needs assessment (55%). The study called for state-level HRM capacity building programmes but did not cover the North Central Zone.

Akinola and Oladele (2019) studied capacity building for adult education managers in Oyo State. Using a survey of 20 managers (including the state director, zonal coordinators, and centre supervisors), they found significant competency gaps in strategic HRM (workforce planning, succession planning) and staff motivation. The study recommended a competency-based training programme, but the sample was small (n=20) and limited to one state, not the North Central Zone.

2.4.2 HRM Competencies of Public Sector Managers

Okafor and Nwosu (2020) assessed HRM competencies of heads of departments in federal ministries in Abuja. Using a survey of 150 department heads, they measured competencies across six HRM functions using a validated instrument. Results showed that heads rated themselves highest in employee relations (mean=3.8/5) and lowest in HR information systems (mean=2.5/5). There were significant differences by educational level (postgraduate degree holders had higher self-rated competencies) and prior HRM training (those with HRM training rated themselves higher). The study concluded that HRIS is a critical capacity building need for public sector managers. However, the study focused on federal ministries, not state-level adult education agencies.

Nwankwo and Ugwu (2021) investigated the relationship between HRM competencies and organizational performance in Anambra State public service. Using a survey of 200 managers across 20 ministries, they found that HRM competencies (particularly performance management and training and development) were positively and significantly correlated with departmental performance (r=0.62, p<0.01). The study recommended investing in HRM capacity building for public sector managers. However, the study did not specifically address adult education managers.

2.4.3 Adult Education Management Studies

Oduaran (2019) studied the management challenges facing state adult education agencies in South-South Nigeria. Using interviews with 6 state directors, he identified key challenges: inadequate funding (all 6 directors), political interference in appointments (5 directors), poor staff motivation (5 directors), lack of HRM policies (4 directors), and limited management training (4 directors). Directors expressed a strong desire for capacity building in HRM, particularly in staff motivation and performance management. The study was qualitative with a small sample (n=6), limiting generalizability to the North Central Zone.

Eze and Nweze (2020) examined the human resource practices of adult education agencies in North Central Nigeria. Using a survey of 15 agency managers (including directors and deputy directors) from 5 states, they found that HRM practices were weak: only 20% of agencies had written job descriptions, 30% conducted regular performance appraisals, 15% had a training plan, and 10% had an HRIS. Managers identified inadequate HRM skills as a major reason for weak practices. The study called for systematic capacity building but did not specifically focus on directors (included deputy directors) and had a small sample.

2.4.4 Transformational Leadership in Education

Adebayo and Adeola (2018) studied the relationship between transformational leadership of school principals and teacher job satisfaction in Kwara State, North Central Nigeria. Using a survey of 200 teachers from 40 schools, they found that transformational leadership (particularly individualized consideration and intellectual stimulation) was positively correlated with teacher job satisfaction (r=0.58, p<0.01). The study recommended leadership development for principals. While focused on formal education (schools), the findings suggest that transformational leadership is relevant in the North Central Zone context and could apply to adult education directors.

Ogunyemi and Adebayo (2021) conducted a training needs assessment for adult education supervisors in Lagos State. Using a survey of 80 supervisors, they identified training needs in: coaching and mentoring (93% of supervisors rated as high need), providing feedback (88%), conducting classroom observations (82%), and using learner data to improve instruction (79%). The study demonstrated the value of needs assessment methodology but was limited to supervisors (not directors) and to Lagos State (South-West, not North Central).

2.4.5 Summary of Empirical Findings

The empirical literature reveals several consistent findings: (1) public sector managers, including adult education managers, have significant gaps in HRM competencies; (2) performance management, employee relations, and HRIS are frequently identified as high-need areas; (3) prior formal HRM training is limited among public sector managers; (4) barriers to capacity building include inadequate budget, lack of relevant training, and absence of systematic needs assessment; (5) transformational leadership behaviours (individualized consideration, intellectual stimulation) are associated with positive staff outcomes; (6) few studies have focused specifically on state agency directors in adult education; (7) no study has focused specifically on the North Central Zone of Nigeria. This study addresses these gaps.

2.5 Summary of Literature Review

The table below summarizes key empirical and theoretical literature relevant to the capacity building needs of state agency directors in human resource management in adult education, highlighting strengths, weaknesses, limitations, and gaps.

Author(s) and Year	Focus of Study	Strength	Weakness	Limitation	Gap Identified
Becker (1964); Becker (2019)	Human Capital Theory	Seminal theoretical framework	Individual-level focus; underemphasizes organizational factors	Not education-specific	Application to adult education management needed
McClelland (1973); Boyatzis (1982)	Competency-Based HRM Theory	Practical framework for needs assessment	Can be reductionist; competency frameworks become outdated	Not public sector-specific	Application to state agency directors needed
Bass (1985); Bass and Avolio (2018)	Transformational Leadership Theory	Emphasizes leader as developer of staff	Overly focused on heroic leadership; cultural limitations	Not adult education-specific	Application to adult education directors needed
Bush (2020)	Educational Management Theory	Comprehensive framework for education management	General; not adult education-specific	Not empirical	Empirical testing in adult education needed
Hallinger (2018)	Instructional Leadership Theory	Focuses on leader’s role in improving teaching	Formal education focus (schools)	Not adult education	Adaptation to adult education needed
Senge (2019)	Organizational Learning Theory	Emphasizes collective capacity building	Complex; difficult to implement	Not adult education-specific	Application to adult education agencies needed
Deming (2018)	Total Quality Management in Education	Focuses on continuous improvement	Originally designed for manufacturing; adapted to education	Not adult education-specific	Application to adult education HRM needed
Adebayo and Ogunyemi (2020)	Capacity needs of local government administrators (South-West Nigeria)	Empirical; survey of 250 administrators	Not adult education-specific; not North Central	Geographic gap	Adult education directors in North Central not studied
Okonkwo and Eze (2021)	Capacity needs of education ministry directors (Enugu State)	Mixed-methods; empirical	Single state (Enugu); not North Central	Geographic gap	North Central directors not studied
Akinola and Oladele (2019)	Capacity building for adult education managers (Oyo State)	Adult education-specific	Small sample (n=20); single state	Geographic gap	North Central not studied
Okafor and Nwosu (2020)	HRM competencies of federal ministry heads (Abuja)	Large sample (n=150); validated instrument	Federal, not state level; not adult education	Level gap	State-level adult education directors not studied
Nwankwo and Ugwu (2021)	HRM competencies and performance (Anambra State)	Established correlation between HRM competencies and performance	Not adult education-specific	Sector gap	Adult education sector not studied
Oduaran (2019)	Management challenges of state adult education directors (South-South)	Qualitative depth; adult education-specific	Small sample (n=6); not North Central	Geographic gap	North Central directors not studied
Eze and Nweze (2020)	HR practices of adult education agencies (North Central)	Geographic relevance (North Central)	Small sample (n=15); included deputy directors, not only directors	Sample composition	Focused study of directors only needed
Adebayo and Adeola (2018)	Transformational leadership and teacher satisfaction (Kwara State, North Central)	Geographic relevance; demonstrates leadership effects in North Central	Formal education (schools), not adult education	Sector gap	Adult education leadership in North Central not studied
Ogunyemi and Adebayo (2021)	Training needs of adult education supervisors (Lagos State)	Adult education-specific; needs assessment methodology	Supervisors, not directors; Lagos State, not North Central	Level and geographic gaps	Directors in North Central not studied
UNDP (2019)	Capacity development primer	Authoritative framework for capacity building	General; not adult education-specific	Not empirical	Application to adult education needed
World Bank (2021)	Public sector capacity building	International best practices	Not Nigeria-specific	Not empirical	Nigeria application needed
Armstrong and Taylor (2020)	HRM handbook	Comprehensive HRM framework	General; not public sector or adult education-specific	Not contextualized	Adaptation to adult education needed
Noe et al. (2021)	HRM textbook	Comprehensive coverage	General; not public sector-specific	Not contextualized	Adaptation to adult education needed
Knowles et al. (2019)	Adult learning (Andragogy)	Seminal adult education theory	Not HRM-specific	Not management-focused	Link between andragogy and HRM needed
Merriam and Baumgartner (2020)	Learning in adulthood	Comprehensive adult education theory	Not management-focused	Not HRM-specific	Link to HRM of adult educators needed
Federal Ministry of Education (2019, 2020)	National adult education policies	Official policy documents	Not research; descriptive	No empirical data	Policy implementation evaluation needed
NMEC (2020)	Guidelines for state agencies	Official guidelines	Not research; descriptive	No empirical data	Implementation assessment needed
NBS (2022)	Literacy report	Official state-level literacy data	Not adult education management-specific	No HRM variables	Link between HRM and literacy outcomes not examined
Hoy and Miskel (2020)	Educational administration (textbook)	Comprehensive educational management theory	Formal education focus; not adult education	Sector gap	Adaptation to adult education needed
Owens and Valesky (2020)	Educational leadership (textbook)	Comprehensive leadership theory	Formal education focus; not adult education	Sector gap	Adaptation to adult education needed
Northouse (2021)	Leadership theory and practice	Comprehensive leadership theory	General; not education-specific	Not contextualized	Application to adult education needed
Robinson (2019)	Instructional leadership (meta-analysis)	Rigorous meta-analysis	Formal education (schools) focus	Sector gap	Adult education instructional leadership understudied
Garvin, Edmondson, and Gino (2019)	Organizational learning	Theoretical and practical framework	Not adult education-specific	Not empirical	Application to adult education agencies needed

Summary of Identified Gaps from the Table:

Geographic Gap (North Central Zone): There is a significant lack of empirical research on capacity building needs of state agency directors specifically in the North Central Zone of Nigeria. Existing Nigerian studies focus on South-West, South-South, South-East, or national aggregates, leaving the North Central Zone understudied.

Population Gap (State Agency Directors): Few studies focus specifically on state agency directors of adult education. Studies that examine adult education management often include deputy directors, zonal coordinators, centre supervisors, or other staff, diluting the focus on directors.

HRM-Specific Gap: While some studies examine capacity building needs in general management or financial management, few studies focus specifically on HRM competencies (recruitment, performance management, training and development, motivation and retention, employee relations, HRIS) of adult education directors.

Theoretical Integration Gap: Human Capital Theory, Competency-Based HRM Theory, and Transformational Leadership Theory have been applied separately to public sector capacity building, but rarely integrated into a single empirical study on adult education directors.

Comprehensive Needs Assessment Gap: Many studies assess training needs broadly (e.g., “need for HRM training”) without systematically identifying which specific competencies within each HRM function are most needed (e.g., within performance management: goal setting, appraisal methods, feedback skills, addressing underperformance).

Barrier Identification Gap: While some studies mention barriers to capacity building (budget, relevance, politics), few have systematically identified and prioritized barriers from the perspective of directors themselves.

Prior Training Gap: Few studies have documented the prior formal HRM training that directors have received, its quality, and its perceived relevance to their current roles.

Contextual Factor Gap: Few studies examine how contextual factors (state literacy rate, funding levels, conflict situation, urban/rural composition) affect directors’ capacity building needs.

Prioritization Gap: Many studies list training needs but do not prioritize them (which needs are most urgent, most important for job performance). Prioritization is essential for allocating scarce capacity building resources.

Intervention Design Gap: Most studies stop at identifying needs; few propose specific, evidence-based capacity building interventions (type of training, duration, format, content, follow-up) based on the identified needs.