INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT) UTILIZATION AND IMPLEMENTATION ON ADULT EDUCATION PROGRAMMES IN CROSS RIVER STATE, NIGERIA

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) refers to the diverse set of technological tools and resources used to transmit, store, create, share, or exchange information (UNESCO, 2019). These include computers, the internet, broadcasting technologies (radio and television), telephony (mobile phones), and other digital platforms that facilitate communication and information processing (Tinio, 2020). In the field of education, ICT has revolutionized teaching and learning processes, enabling learner-centred approaches, distance education, flexible learning, access to vast information resources, and personalized learning pathways (Kozma, 2019). The integration of ICT into education is no longer a luxury but a necessity in the 21st century, as digital literacy has become a fundamental competency for full participation in economic, social, and political life (World Bank, 2021).

Adult education is a distinct field of educational practice focused on providing learning opportunities to adults beyond the age of compulsory schooling (Knowles, Holton, and Swanson, 2019). Adult education encompasses a wide range of programmes including basic literacy and numeracy (for adults who missed formal schooling), continuing education (professional development, skills upgrading), vocational and technical training, remedial education, civic education, health education, and lifelong learning for personal enrichment (Merriam and Baumgartner, 2020). Unlike formal primary and secondary education, which follows a prescribed curriculum for children and adolescents, adult education is characterized by principles of andragogy (adult learning theory): self-directed learning, experiential learning, relevance to life and work, problem-centred rather than content-centred orientation, and intrinsic motivation (Knowles et al., 2019).

In Nigeria, adult education has been recognized as a critical tool for addressing the country’s high illiteracy rate, which stood at approximately 38% of the adult population according to UNESCO estimates (UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2022). The National Commission for Mass Literacy, Adult and Non-Formal Education (NMEC) was established to coordinate adult literacy and non-formal education programmes across the country (Federal Ministry of Education, 2019). The Nigerian government has launched several initiatives including the National Mass Literacy Campaign, the Nomadic Education Programme, the Almajiri Education Programme, and various state-level adult literacy programmes (Okonkwo, 2020). Despite these efforts, adult illiteracy remains a significant challenge, particularly in rural areas, among women, and in states with low educational infrastructure (Nwosu and Okafor, 2021).

Cross River State, located in the South-South geopolitical zone of Nigeria, has made notable efforts in adult education programming (Eze and Nweze, 2019). The Cross River State Agency for Mass Literacy and Non-Formal Education coordinates adult learning centres across the state’s 18 Local Government Areas, offering basic literacy, post-literacy, vocational skills, and continuing education programmes (Cross River State Ministry of Education, 2020). The state has also been a beneficiary of donor-supported adult education projects, including the World Bank-assisted Nigeria Community-Based Poverty Reduction Project and various NGO initiatives (Cross River State, 2019). However, the state still faces significant adult illiteracy challenges, with literacy rates varying widely between urban centres (Calabar) and rural hinterlands (NBS, 2022).

The utilization of ICT in adult education offers transformative potential for addressing the access, quality, and relevance challenges facing adult learning programmes (UNESCO, 2019). ICT can expand access to adult education by enabling distance learning, reducing the need for physical classrooms and travel, and allowing adults to learn at times and places convenient for them (Tinio, 2020). For adults with work, family, and community responsibilities, the flexibility of ICT-mediated learning is a significant advantage over traditional face-to-face classes held at fixed times and locations (Knowles et al., 2019). Mobile learning (m-learning) using smartphones, which are increasingly affordable and widespread even in rural Nigeria, is particularly promising for reaching adults who may not have access to computers or the internet (Adegoke and Oyewole, 2021).

ICT can also improve the quality of adult education through access to diverse, up-to-date, and multimedia learning resources (Kozma, 2019). Adult learners can access online libraries, educational videos, interactive simulations, podcasts, and digital worksheets that are more engaging than traditional textbooks and blackboards (Merriam and Baumgartner, 2020). ICT enables personalized learning, allowing adult learners to progress at their own pace, revisit difficult concepts, skip material they already know, and access content in multiple formats (audio, visual, text) to suit different learning preferences (UNESCO, 2019). Adaptive learning systems can adjust content difficulty based on learner performance, providing a tailored educational experience (World Bank, 2021).

ICT can enhance the relevance of adult education by linking learning to real-world applications (Tinio, 2020). Adults are more motivated to learn when they can immediately apply new knowledge and skills to their work, business, or daily life (Knowles et al., 2019). ICT enables contextualized learning, where adults can access information relevant to their specific needs (e.g., agricultural extension information for farmers, business management skills for entrepreneurs, health information for mothers) (Adegoke and Oyewole, 2021). Digital vocational training (e-learning for computer skills, digital marketing, online business management) can prepare adults for the digital economy (Okonkwo, 2020).

ICT can facilitate communication and collaboration among adult learners and between learners and instructors (Kozma, 2019). Discussion forums, social media groups, messaging apps (WhatsApp, Telegram), and video conferencing (Zoom, Google Meet) enable peer learning, mentorship, and instructor support beyond the limited hours of face-to-face classes (Merriam and Baumgartner, 2020). For adult learners who may feel isolated or lack confidence, online learning communities provide social support and motivation to persist (UNESCO, 2019). For instructors, ICT enables better tracking of learner progress, automated assessment, and data-driven instructional decision-making (World Bank, 2021).

Despite the potential of ICT, the utilization and implementation of ICT in adult education programmes face numerous challenges, particularly in resource-constrained settings like Cross River State (Eze and Nweze, 2019). Infrastructure deficits (unreliable electricity supply, limited internet connectivity, lack of computers and devices) are major barriers. In many rural areas of Cross River State, the national power grid is unavailable or unreliable, and internet access (particularly broadband) is limited (Cross River State, 2019). Cost is another barrier: computers, smartphones, data plans, and software are expensive relative to the incomes of many adult learners and the budgets of adult education centres (Adegoke and Oyewole, 2021). Digital literacy among both adult learners and instructors is limited; many adults who did not complete formal schooling have never used a computer or the internet (Nwosu and Okafor, 2021).

Language and content barriers also pose challenges: most ICT-based learning resources (websites, online courses, educational software) are in English, which may be a second or third language for many adult learners in Cross River State where local languages (Efik, Ejagham, Bekwarra, etc.) are spoken (Okonkwo, 2020). Culturally appropriate content that reflects local contexts and experiences is scarce. Organizational factors within adult education agencies (lack of ICT policies, inadequate teacher training, absence of technical support, resistance to change) also hinder ICT utilization (Eze and Nweze, 2019). Many adult education instructors themselves lack ICT skills and confidence, and have not received training on how to integrate ICT into their teaching practice (Federal Ministry of Education, 2019).

Implementation of ICT in adult education requires more than just providing devices; it requires a systematic approach that addresses infrastructure, capacity building, content development, and ongoing support (UNESCO, 2019). The implementation of ICT refers to the actual deployment, integration, and institutionalization of ICT resources into adult education programmes, including hardware (computers, tablets, projectors), software (learning management systems, educational apps), connectivity (internet access), training (instructor professional development, learner digital literacy), content (digital learning materials), and support (technical assistance, maintenance) (Kozma, 2019). Successful implementation involves not just availability of ICT resources but their effective utilization in teaching and learning activities (Tinio, 2020).

The relationship between ICT utilization and adult education outcomes has been studied internationally, with generally positive findings (World Bank, 2021). Studies from developed countries (e.g., the UK’s “Skillbuild” programme, the US’s “Digital Literacy for Adults” initiatives) show that ICT-enabled adult education can improve literacy and numeracy gains, increase learner engagement and retention, and enhance employability (UNESCO, 2019). In developing countries, evidence is more mixed but generally positive: mobile learning programmes in India (e.g., “Mobile Vaani”) improved adult literacy outcomes; radio-based education in Mali and Burkina Faso reached learners in remote areas; computer-assisted instruction in Chile improved adult basic skills (Adegoke and Oyewole, 2021). However, the effectiveness of ICT depends heavily on implementation quality, contextual factors (infrastructure, language, culture), and the appropriateness of the technology to the learning objectives (Kozma, 2019).

Empirical research on ICT utilization and implementation in adult education in Cross River State is limited (Eze and Nweze, 2019). Existing studies tend to focus on formal education (primary, secondary, tertiary) rather than adult education, or on ICT in general education rather than specifically in adult learning programmes (Okonkwo, 2020). Studies that do address adult education often focus on policy analysis or programme descriptions rather than empirical assessment of ICT utilization and its effects on learning outcomes (Nwosu and Okafor, 2021). There is a need for primary research that documents the current state of ICT resources, their utilization, the challenges faced, and the relationship between ICT utilization and adult education outcomes in Cross River State (Cross River State Ministry of Education, 2020).

The COVID-19 pandemic, which disrupted face-to-face adult education programmes globally in 2020-2021, has accelerated interest in ICT-enabled adult learning (UNESCO, 2021). During lockdowns, adult education programmes that had already integrated ICT were able to transition to remote learning; programmes that had not were forced to suspend operations entirely (World Bank, 2021). In Cross River State, adult education centres were closed for extended periods, and those with no ICT capacity were unable to serve their learners (Cross River State, 2019). The pandemic has highlighted the urgency of ICT integration in adult education as a matter of resilience and continuity (Adegoke and Oyewole, 2021).

From a theoretical perspective, this study is supported by three theories: Andragogy (Adult Learning Theory) (Knowles, 1984; Knowles et al., 2019), which provides the learner-centred framework for understanding how adults learn and how ICT can support self-directed, experiential, and relevant learning; Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) (Davis, 1989), which explains how users come to accept and use new technology, based on perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use; and Diffusion of Innovations Theory (Rogers, 2003), which explains how new ideas and technologies spread (or fail to spread) through social systems, including the factors that influence adoption (relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability, observability). These theories together provide a comprehensive framework for understanding ICT utilization and implementation in adult education programmes in Cross River State.

In summary, ICT has transformative potential for adult education, enabling expanded access, improved quality, enhanced relevance, and flexible learning. However, the utilization and implementation of ICT in adult education programmes in Cross River State face significant challenges: infrastructure deficits (electricity, internet), cost, digital literacy gaps, language barriers, content scarcity, and organizational constraints. Empirical research on this topic in Cross River State is limited. This study aims to document the current state of ICT utilization and implementation in adult education programmes in Cross River State, identify challenges, and examine the relationship between ICT utilization and adult education outcomes, generating evidence to inform policy, practice, and future investment.

1.2 Statement of Problems

Despite the recognized potential of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) to transform adult education by expanding access, improving quality, and enhancing relevance, the utilization and implementation of ICT in adult education programmes in Cross River State, Nigeria, appears to be severely limited. Preliminary evidence suggests that many adult education centres in the state lack basic ICT infrastructure: no computers, no internet connectivity, no projectors, and no digital learning materials. Where ICT resources are available, they are often underutilized due to lack of instructor training, inadequate technical support, unreliable electricity, and limited digital literacy among adult learners. Adult education instructors often lack the skills and confidence to integrate ICT into their teaching. Consequently, adult education programmes remain predominantly traditional (chalk-and-talk, print-based), failing to leverage ICT to reach more learners, improve learning outcomes, or provide flexible, learner-centred, and relevant education. There is limited empirical research documenting the specific ICT resources available, the extent of their utilization, the barriers to implementation, or the relationship between ICT utilization and adult education outcomes (learner retention, literacy gains, skill acquisition) in Cross River State. The problem this study addresses is the need to systematically assess the current state of ICT utilization and implementation in adult education programmes in Cross River State, identify the specific challenges, and provide evidence-based recommendations for improving ICT integration to enhance adult education outcomes.

1.3 Aim of the Study

The specific aim of this research work is to examine Information and Communication Technology (ICT) utilization and implementation in adult education programmes in Cross River State, Nigeria, with a view to assessing the availability and types of ICT resources, the extent of utilization, the challenges to implementation, and the relationship between ICT utilization and adult education outcomes.

1.4 Objectives of the Study

1. To identify the types and availability of ICT resources (computers, internet connectivity, mobile devices, projectors, digital learning materials, radio, television) in adult education centres in Cross River State.
2. To assess the extent of ICT utilization by adult education instructors and adult learners in teaching and learning activities.
3. To examine the challenges (infrastructure, cost, digital literacy, language, content, organizational factors) affecting ICT implementation in adult education programmes in Cross River State.
4. To evaluate the relationship between ICT utilization and adult education outcomes (learner retention, literacy/numeracy gains, skills acquisition, learner satisfaction) in Cross River State.
5. To propose strategies for improving ICT utilization and implementation in adult education programmes in Cross River State based on empirical findings.

1.5 Research Questions

1. What types of ICT resources are available in adult education centres in Cross River State, and to what extent are they available?
2. To what extent do adult education instructors and adult learners utilize ICT resources in teaching and learning activities?
3. What are the challenges (infrastructure, cost, digital literacy, language, content, organizational factors) affecting ICT implementation in adult education programmes in Cross River State?
4. What is the relationship between ICT utilization and adult education outcomes (learner retention, literacy/numeracy gains, skills acquisition, learner satisfaction) in Cross River State?
5. What strategies can be proposed for improving ICT utilization and implementation in adult education programmes in Cross River State based on empirical findings?

1.6 Research Hypotheses

Hypothesis One

• H₀ (Null): There are no significant ICT resources available in adult education centres in Cross River State.
• H₁ (Alternative): There are significant ICT resources available in adult education centres in Cross River State.

Hypothesis Two

• H₀ (Null): Adult education instructors and adult learners do not significantly utilize ICT resources in teaching and learning activities in Cross River State.
• H₁ (Alternative): Adult education instructors and adult learners significantly utilize ICT resources in teaching and learning activities in Cross River State.

Hypothesis Three

• H₀ (Null): There are no significant challenges (infrastructure, cost, digital literacy, language, content, organizational factors) affecting ICT implementation in adult education programmes in Cross River State.
• H₁ (Alternative): There are significant challenges (infrastructure, cost, digital literacy, language, content, organizational factors) affecting ICT implementation in adult education programmes in Cross River State.

Hypothesis Four

• H₀ (Null): There is no significant relationship between ICT utilization and adult education outcomes (learner retention, literacy/numeracy gains, skills acquisition, learner satisfaction) in Cross River State.
• H₁ (Alternative): There is a significant relationship between ICT utilization and adult education outcomes (learner retention, literacy/numeracy gains, skills acquisition, learner satisfaction) in Cross River State.

Hypothesis Five

• H₀ (Null): There are no significant strategies that can be proposed for improving ICT utilization and implementation in adult education programmes in Cross River State.
• H₁ (Alternative): There are significant strategies that can be proposed for improving ICT utilization and implementation in adult education programmes in Cross River State.

1.7 Justification of the Study

This study is justified on several grounds. First, despite the national and state government policies recognizing the importance of ICT in education, there is limited empirical evidence on the actual state of ICT utilization and implementation specifically in adult education programmes in Cross River State. Second, adult education is a critical tool for reducing illiteracy, poverty, and inequality in Cross River State, and ICT has the potential to enhance its effectiveness and reach, but the extent to which ICT is actually being leveraged is unknown. Third, the COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the vulnerability of traditional face-to-face adult education to disruptions and the need for ICT-enabled distance learning; understanding current ICT capacity is essential for resilience planning. Fourth, Cross River State has received donor funding for adult education and ICT development; evaluating the utilization and implementation of ICT will inform accountability and future resource allocation. Fifth, the findings will inform policy (state Ministry of Education, NMEC), practice (adult education centre managers, instructors), and future research.

1.8 Significance of the Study

The findings of this research will be significant to several stakeholders. To the Cross River State Ministry of Education and the Cross River State Agency for Mass Literacy and Non-Formal Education, the study will provide empirical data on ICT resource gaps, utilization patterns, and implementation challenges, enabling evidence-based planning and budgeting. To the National Commission for Mass Literacy, Adult and Non-Formal Education (NMEC) , the findings will contribute to national-level understanding of ICT integration challenges in adult education, informing national policies and programmes. To adult education centre managers and instructors, the study will identify training needs, resource requirements, and best practices for integrating ICT into their programmes. To adult learners, the study may lead to improved ICT-enabled learning opportunities, enhancing their literacy, numeracy, skills, and employability. To development partners (World Bank, UNESCO, DFID, EU, Civil Society Organizations) , the findings will inform investment priorities, technical assistance design, and project evaluation. To academic researchers, the study will contribute empirical evidence on ICT in adult education in a developing country context, testing and extending andragogy, technology acceptance model, and diffusion of innovations theory.

1.9 Scope of the Study

The scope of this study is delimited to Information and Communication Technology (ICT) utilization and implementation in adult education programmes in Cross River State, Nigeria. The study focuses on adult education centres (also called adult literacy centres, non-formal education centres, and continuing education centres) operated by or affiliated with the Cross River State Agency for Mass Literacy and Non-Formal Education. The study examines ICT resources including computers (desktops, laptops, tablets), internet connectivity (broadband, mobile data), mobile devices (smartphones), projectors, digital learning materials (software, apps, online courses, digital libraries), radio, and television. The study assesses utilization by adult education instructors (teaching, lesson preparation, learner assessment, communication) and adult learners (accessing content, practice exercises, communication, collaboration). The study examines implementation challenges: infrastructure (electricity, internet), cost (devices, data, software), digital literacy (instructor skills, learner skills), language (English vs. local languages), content (availability of appropriate digital materials), and organizational factors (policies, training, technical support). The study covers adult education programmes in selected Local Government Areas (LGAs) within Cross River State (typically 3-5 LGAs representing urban, semi-urban, and rural contexts). The study period covers 2019 to 2023 (five years). The study does not extend to formal education (primary, secondary, tertiary), nor to adult education programmes outside Cross River State, nor to ICT in other non-formal education settings (e.g., vocational training centres not affiliated with the adult education agency), nor to the technical specifications of ICT hardware (e.g., processor speed, memory).

1.10 Definition of Terms

Information and Communication Technology (ICT): The diverse set of technological tools and resources used to transmit, store, create, share, or exchange information, including computers, the internet, mobile phones, tablets, projectors, digital cameras, radio, television, and associated software and applications.

ICT Utilization: The actual use of ICT resources for educational purposes, including teaching (delivering instruction, preparing lessons, assessing learners), learning (accessing content, practicing skills, completing assignments), communication (interacting with instructors and peers), and collaboration (working together on learning activities).

ICT Implementation: The systematic process of deploying, integrating, and institutionalizing ICT resources into adult education programmes, encompassing hardware acquisition, software selection, connectivity provision, instructor training, learner digital literacy development, content development, technical support, and ongoing maintenance.

Adult Education: Organized learning activities for adults (typically persons aged 15 years and above, or beyond compulsory school age) that are not part of the formal primary or secondary school system, including basic literacy and numeracy, continuing education, vocational training, remedial education, civic education, and lifelong learning for personal enrichment.

Adult Education Programme: A structured set of learning activities offered to adults, typically at an adult education centre, with defined learning objectives, curriculum, instructional methods, assessment procedures, and duration.

Adult Learner: An individual, typically beyond the age of compulsory schooling (15 years or older), who participates in an adult education programme.

Adult Education Centre: A physical location (classroom, community hall, workplace, learning resource centre) where adult education activities take place, operated by or affiliated with the state adult education agency.

Digital Literacy: The ability to use digital technologies (computers, internet, mobile devices, software) effectively and critically for information seeking, communication, content creation, problem solving, and learning.

Andragogy: The theory and practice of adult learning, which emphasizes that adults are self-directed, have accumulated life experiences that serve as learning resources, are motivated by relevance and practicality, and prefer problem-centred learning over content-centred learning.

Technology Acceptance Model (TAM): A theoretical framework that explains user acceptance of new technology based on two primary factors: perceived usefulness (the degree to which a person believes that using the technology will enhance their performance) and perceived ease of use (the degree to which a person believes that using the technology will be free of effort).

Diffusion of Innovations Theory: A theoretical framework that explains how, why, and at what rate new ideas and technologies spread through social systems, identifying five factors influencing adoption: relative advantage (better than existing practice), compatibility (consistent with values and needs), complexity (difficulty of use), trialability (ability to experiment), and observability (visibility of results).

Learning Management System (LMS): Software application for the administration, documentation, tracking, reporting, and delivery of educational courses, training programmes, or learning and development programmes.

Mobile Learning (m-learning): Learning facilitated by mobile devices (smartphones, tablets, feature phones) that enables learning across multiple contexts, taking advantage of the device’s portability, connectivity, and multimedia capabilities.

Radio-Based Education: Use of radio broadcasts (live or recorded) to deliver educational content to learners, particularly useful in areas with limited internet connectivity or where learners have low digital literacy.

Blended Learning: An educational approach that combines face-to-face instruction (traditional classroom) with ICT-mediated instruction (online, mobile, computer-based), leveraging the strengths of both modalities.

Infrastructure (for ICT): The physical and technical resources required for ICT utilization, including electricity supply (grid, generator, solar), internet connectivity (broadband, mobile data, satellite), computer hardware, networking equipment, and physical facilities (ventilated, secure space for equipment).

Digital Divide: The gap between those who have access to digital technologies and the skills to use them effectively, and those who do not; often correlates with socioeconomic status, geographic location (urban vs. rural), age, education level, and gender.

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Theoretical Review

This study is anchored on three supporting theories that provide a comprehensive theoretical foundation for understanding ICT utilization and implementation in adult education programmes. These theories are Andragogy (Adult Learning Theory), the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), and Diffusion of Innovations Theory. Each theory offers distinct but complementary insights into how adults learn, how they accept and use technology, and how innovations spread (or fail to spread) through social systems.

2.1.1 Andragogy (Adult Learning Theory)

Andragogy, a term popularized by Malcolm Knowles (1984), is the theory and practice of adult learning, distinguishing it from pedagogy (child learning). Knowles (1984) articulated six core assumptions about adult learners that have profound implications for the design and delivery of adult education, including the integration of ICT (Knowles, Holton, and Swanson, 2019). First, the need to know: adults need to know why they need to learn something before undertaking it. ICT-based learning activities should therefore clearly articulate the relevance and benefits of the technology to adult learners’ goals (Merriam and Baumgartner, 2020). Second, the learner’s self-concept: adults are self-directed and responsible for their own decisions. ICT can support self-directed learning through on-demand access to content, self-paced modules, and learner-controlled navigation (Knowles et al., 2019).

Third, the role of learners’ experiences: adults bring a wealth of life experiences to the learning environment, which serve as resources for learning. ICT can help adults connect new learning to their existing knowledge through interactive simulations, case studies, and discussion forums where learners share experiences (Merriam and Baumgartner, 2020). Fourth, readiness to learn: adults become ready to learn when they experience a need to cope with real-life tasks or problems. ICT can provide just-in-time learning (access to information exactly when needed) and problem-centred content (e.g., how to use a smartphone for business, how to access government services online) (Knowles et al., 2019).

Fifth, orientation to learning: adults are life-centred (or task-centred, problem-centred) rather than subject-centred. ICT should therefore focus on practical applications rather than abstract theory, using real-world scenarios, simulations, and project-based learning (Merriam and Baumgartner, 2020). Sixth, motivation: while adults respond to external motivators (promotions, job requirements), internal motivators (self-esteem, quality of life, personal growth) are stronger. ICT can enhance intrinsic motivation through gamification (badges, points, progress tracking), social learning (leaderboards, peer recognition), and personalized learning pathways (Knowles et al., 2019).

Andragogy has important implications for ICT utilization in adult education (UNESCO, 2019). ICT should not be used simply to replicate traditional teacher-centred instruction (e.g., digitized lectures). Instead, ICT should facilitate learner-centred, self-directed, experiential, and relevant learning (Tinio, 2020). For example, a mobile app for adult literacy should allow learners to choose topics relevant to their lives (health, farming, business), proceed at their own pace, receive immediate feedback, and connect with peers for support (Adegoke and Oyewole, 2021). Radio-based education should include interactive elements (call-in shows, SMS quizzes) that engage adult learners actively rather than passive listening (UNESCO, 2019).

A limitation of Andragogy is that it has been criticized as a set of assumptions rather than a fully tested theory, and it may not apply equally to all adult learners (e.g., adults with low prior education may not be as self-directed as educated adults) (Merriam and Baumgartner, 2020). Additionally, Andragogy was developed before the widespread availability of digital technologies; its principles need to be reinterpreted for ICT-mediated learning (Knowles et al., 2019). Nevertheless, Andragogy provides the essential learner-centred framework for evaluating whether ICT utilization in adult education is appropriate and effective.

2.1.2 Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)

The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), developed by Fred Davis (1989), provides a theoretical framework for understanding why users accept or reject new technology. TAM is one of the most widely used and empirically validated models in information systems research (Venkatesh, Morris, Davis, and Davis, 2003). The model posits that two primary factors determine technology acceptance and usage behaviour: perceived usefulness (PU) and perceived ease of use (PEOU) (Davis, 1989). Perceived usefulness is the degree to which a person believes that using a particular technology will enhance their job performance or learning outcomes. Perceived ease of use is the degree to which a person believes that using the technology will be free of effort (Davis, 1989). These perceptions influence attitude toward using the technology, which influences behavioural intention, which ultimately leads to actual system use (Venkatesh et al., 2003).

Subsequent extensions of TAM (TAM2, TAM3, UTAUT) have added additional variables: social influence (the perception that important others believe one should use the technology), facilitating conditions (the availability of infrastructure, training, and support), computer self-efficacy (belief in one’s ability to use technology), and anxiety (fear of using technology) (Venkatesh and Bala, 2008). However, the core constructs of perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use remain central (Venkatesh et al., 2003).

In the context of adult education, TAM helps explain why adult education instructors and adult learners may or may not utilize ICT (Adegoke and Oyewole, 2021). If instructors perceive that ICT tools are useful for improving teaching effectiveness (e.g., reaching more learners, providing personalized feedback, saving time on administrative tasks) and easy to use (e.g., intuitive interface, minimal training required, reliable performance), they are more likely to accept and integrate ICT into their practice (Merriam and Baumgartner, 2020). Conversely, if instructors perceive ICT as not useful (e.g., digital materials not aligned with curriculum, no improvement in learner outcomes) or difficult to use (e.g., complex software, frequent technical problems, no technical support), they will resist or abandon ICT (UNESCO, 2019).

For adult learners, perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use similarly affect acceptance (Tinio, 2020). If learners believe that using ICT will help them achieve their learning goals (e.g., improve literacy, gain employment skills, access information) and that the technology is not too difficult (e.g., clear instructions, simple interface, available assistance), they will be more likely to engage with ICT-based learning (World Bank, 2021). However, adult learners with low digital literacy may perceive even basic ICT as difficult to use (low PEOU), leading to rejection (Adegoke and Oyewole, 2021). TAM suggests that interventions to improve ICT utilization must address both usefulness (demonstrate benefits) and ease of use (provide training, simplify interfaces, offer technical support) (Venkatesh and Bala, 2008).

TAM also explains the role of facilitating conditions (infrastructure, support) (Venkatesh et al., 2003). Even if an instructor or learner has positive perceptions of usefulness and ease of use, they cannot use ICT if the technology is not available (no computers, no internet), if electricity is unreliable, or if technical support is absent when problems occur (Davis, 1989). Thus, TAM complements infrastructure assessments: availability of technology is necessary but not sufficient; perceptions of usefulness and ease of use must also be positive (World Bank, 2021).

A limitation of TAM is that it focuses on individual acceptance and does not fully account for organizational, social, and contextual factors that also influence technology adoption (Venkatesh et al., 2003). Additionally, TAM relies on self-reported perceptions (attitudes, intentions) rather than observed behaviour, and there can be a gap between intention and actual use (Venkatesh and Bala, 2008). Nevertheless, TAM provides a well-validated framework for understanding ICT acceptance and use by adult education instructors and learners.

2.1.3 Diffusion of Innovations Theory

Diffusion of Innovations Theory, developed by Everett Rogers (2003), provides a framework for understanding how new ideas, practices, and technologies spread (or fail to spread) through social systems over time. The theory identifies five key factors that influence the rate of adoption of an innovation: relative advantage (the degree to which an innovation is perceived as better than the idea it supersedes), compatibility (the degree to which an innovation is perceived as consistent with existing values, past experiences, and needs of potential adopters), complexity (the degree to which an innovation is perceived as difficult to understand and use), trialability (the degree to which an innovation can be experimented with on a limited basis), and observability (the degree to which the results of an innovation are visible to others) (Rogers, 2003).

Relative advantage is similar to perceived usefulness in TAM: if ICT is perceived as offering advantages over traditional adult education methods (e.g., reaching more learners, providing flexible scheduling, offering multimedia content, enabling self-paced learning), adoption is more likely (Rogers, 2003). Compatibility is critical in adult education: ICT must be compatible with adult learners’ prior learning experiences, cultural contexts, language preferences, and daily lives (UNESCO, 2019). If digital content is only in English but learners speak local languages (Efik, Ejagham, Bekwarra, etc.), compatibility is low and adoption suffers (Adegoke and Oyewole, 2021).

Complexity corresponds to perceived ease of use in TAM: if ICT is perceived as complex, adoption is slower (Rogers, 2003). Many adult learners have low digital literacy; if ICT interfaces are not extremely simple, they will be rejected (Tinio, 2020). Trialability is important: if potential adopters can try ICT on a small scale (e.g., a pilot programme, a free workshop, a demo version of software), they are more likely to adopt than if they must commit fully without experience (Rogers, 2003). Observability means that if successful ICT use is visible to others (e.g., a learner demonstrating new digital skills, an instructor showcasing ICT-enhanced teaching), peer influence accelerates adoption (Merriam and Baumgartner, 2020).

Rogers (2003) also categorizes adopters into five categories based on their innovativeness: innovators (the first to adopt, willing to take risks), early adopters (opinion leaders who are respected by peers), early majority (deliberate adopters who adopt before the average person), late majority (sceptical adopters who adopt only after most others have), and laggards (last to adopt, often resistant to change). In the context of adult education in Cross River State, some instructors and learners may be innovators or early adopters of ICT; understanding their characteristics can inform strategies to reach early and late majority (Rogers, 2003).

Diffusion of Innovations Theory also addresses the role of change agents (individuals who influence adoption decisions) and communication channels (mass media, interpersonal networks, social media) (Rogers, 2003). For ICT in adult education, change agents could include state ministry officials, adult education centre supervisors, NGO trainers, and peer instructors who champion ICT adoption (Adegoke and Oyewole, 2021). Interpersonal communication (word of mouth, peer demonstrations) is often more influential than mass media (radio campaigns, newspaper articles) for complex innovations like ICT (Rogers, 2003).

A limitation of Diffusion of Innovations Theory is that it has been criticized for being pro-innovation (assuming that adoption is always desirable) and for overemphasizing individual adoption decisions while underemphasizing structural constraints (poverty, infrastructure deficits, power inequalities) (Rogers, 2003). In the Cross River State context, even if adult education instructors and learners have positive perceptions and want to adopt ICT, they may be unable to do so because electricity is unavailable or they cannot afford smartphones (World Bank, 2021). Nevertheless, Diffusion of Innovations Theory provides a valuable framework for understanding the factors that influence whether ICT innovations spread through the adult education system.

Integration of the Three Theories

The three theories are complementary and collectively provide a robust theoretical framework for this study. Andragogy provides the learner-centred principles for how adult education should be designed: self-directed, experiential, relevant, problem-centred, and intrinsically motivating. ICT utilization should align with these principles, not simply replicate traditional teacher-centred methods. Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) explains the individual-level psychological factors (perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use) that determine whether adult educators and learners will accept and use ICT. Interventions must address both usefulness and ease of use to achieve adoption. Diffusion of Innovations Theory explains the system-level factors (relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability, observability) and the adopter categories (innovators to laggards) that influence the spread of ICT through the adult education system over time. Together, these theories support the study’s examination of ICT utilization and implementation in adult education programmes in Cross River State, recognizing that success depends on learner-centred design (Andragogy), individual acceptance (TAM), and system-level diffusion (Diffusion of Innovations).

2.2 Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework for this study is a schematic representation of the relationships between the independent variables (ICT resources and ICT utilization), the dependent variables (adult education outcomes), and the mediating/moderating variables (implementation factors). The framework, grounded in the three supporting theories (Andragogy, TAM, Diffusion of Innovations), posits that the availability of ICT resources does not automatically lead to improved adult education outcomes; rather, utilization (actual use) mediates the relationship, and implementation factors (infrastructure, training, support, content) moderate the relationship. Below is a detailed discussion of the independent, dependent, mediating, and moderating variables.

Independent Variables (ICT Resources and ICT Utilization)

The independent variables in this study are the ICT resources available and the extent to which they are utilized.

A. ICT Resources (Availability)

1. Hardware: The physical ICT devices available in adult education centres, including desktop computers, laptop computers, tablets (e.g., iPads, Android tablets), smartphones, projectors (for displaying digital content), printers, scanners, and digital cameras. Measured by: count of each device type per adult education centre, device-to-learner ratio, device-to-instructor ratio, and functionality status (working vs. non-working).
2. Connectivity: Internet access available at adult education centres, including broadband (fibre, cable, DSL), mobile data (3G, 4G), satellite internet, or dial-up. Measured by: presence/absence of internet connection, speed (if measurable), reliability, and cost.
3. Software and Digital Content: Digital learning resources available, including operating systems (Windows, Android, iOS), productivity software (word processors, spreadsheets), educational software (literacy apps, numeracy apps, vocational training software), learning management systems (LMS), online courses, digital libraries, and locally developed digital content. Measured by: inventory of software and content types, relevance to adult education curriculum, and language appropriateness (English vs. local languages).
4. Broadcast Technologies: Radio and television resources, including radio receivers, television sets, and recording/playback equipment, as well as access to educational radio and television programmes. Measured by: availability of equipment and access to educational broadcasts.

B. ICT Utilization (Actual Use)

5. Instructor Utilization: The extent to which adult education instructors use ICT for: lesson preparation (researching content, preparing digital materials), lesson delivery (presenting digital content, using educational software, projecting visuals), learner assessment (digital quizzes, automated marking, progress tracking), communication (email, messaging apps, phone calls), and professional development (online courses, webinars). Measured by: frequency of use (daily, weekly, monthly, never), variety of uses, and self-reported or observed usage patterns.
6. Learner Utilization: The extent to which adult learners use ICT for: accessing learning content (reading digital materials, watching educational videos, listening to podcasts), completing practice exercises (digital worksheets, quizzes, simulations), communication with instructors (asking questions, submitting assignments), collaboration with peers (discussion forums, group projects via social media), and self-assessment (tracking progress, reviewing feedback). Measured by: frequency of use, variety of uses, and self-reported or observed usage patterns.
7. Integration into Teaching-Learning Process: The degree to which ICT is seamlessly integrated into the adult education programme rather than being an add-on or used rarely. Measured by: proportion of lessons that incorporate ICT, alignment of ICT use with learning objectives, and alignment with andragogical principles (learner-centred, self-directed, experiential, relevant).

Dependent Variables (Adult Education Outcomes)

The dependent variables in this study are the outcomes of adult education programmes that may be affected by ICT utilization.

1. Learner Retention: The proportion of adult learners who remain enrolled in the programme from start to completion (or from enrolment to follow-up). ICT can improve retention by making learning more engaging, flexible, and supportive. Measured by: retention rate (number completing / number enrolled) for centres with high vs. low ICT utilization.
2. Literacy and Numeracy Gains: The improvement in adult learners’ reading, writing, and mathematics skills as a result of the programme. ICT can support literacy/numeracy through interactive exercises, immediate feedback, and personalized learning pathways. Measured by: pre-test/post-test scores on standardized literacy/numeracy assessments, controlling for learner characteristics.
3. Skills Acquisition: The development of practical skills (vocational, digital, life skills) by adult learners. ICT can support skills acquisition through simulations, video demonstrations, and practice exercises. Measured by: demonstrated competency in targeted skills (e.g., digital literacy: ability to use a smartphone, send email, access information online).
4. Learner Satisfaction: Adult learners’ subjective satisfaction with their learning experience, including perceptions of relevance, engagement, support, and overall quality. ICT can increase satisfaction by offering flexible scheduling, diverse content formats, and immediate feedback. Measured by: learner satisfaction survey scores (Likert-scale items on relevance, engagement, support, quality).
5. Instructor Effectiveness: The quality of teaching as perceived by learners and supervisors, including clarity, engagement, responsiveness, and support. ICT can enhance instructor effectiveness by providing better tools for lesson preparation, delivery, and assessment. Measured by: learner ratings of instructor effectiveness, supervisor observations, and instructor self-assessment.
6. Programme Efficiency: The cost-effectiveness and operational efficiency of the adult education programme, including learner-to-instructor ratios, administrative time, and resource utilization. ICT can improve efficiency by enabling larger classes (through technology-assisted instruction), reducing administrative burden (automated grading, attendance tracking), and optimizing resource use. Measured by: cost per learner, administrative time per learner, and instructor workload.

Mediating and Moderating Variables (Implementation Factors)

Consistent with TAM (Davis, 1989) and Diffusion of Innovations (Rogers, 2003), the relationship between ICT resources/utilization and adult education outcomes is mediated and moderated by implementation factors.

Mediating Variables (Factors that explain how ICT leads to outcomes):

• Perceived usefulness (TAM): The extent to which instructors and learners believe ICT improves their performance.
• Perceived ease of use (TAM): The extent to which instructors and learners believe ICT is easy to use.
• Andragogical alignment: The degree to which ICT use aligns with adult learning principles (self-directed, experiential, relevant, problem-centred).

Moderating Variables (Contextual factors that affect the strength of relationships):

• Infrastructure reliability: Electricity availability (hours per day), internet reliability, device maintenance.
• Instructor training: Whether instructors have received training on ICT use and ICT integration into adult education.
• Technical support: Availability of on-site or remote technical support to fix problems.
• Digital literacy of learners: Learners’ prior experience and comfort with ICT.
• Language and content appropriateness: Availability of digital content in local languages and culturally relevant contexts.
• Organizational support: Policies, funding, and leadership commitment to ICT integration.

Diagrammatic Representation (Described in Text):

The conceptual framework can be visualized as follows:

Independent Variables (ICT Availability and Utilization) → Dependent Variables (Adult Education Outcomes)

Independent Variables:

• ICT Resources (hardware, connectivity, software/content, broadcast technologies)
• ICT Utilization (instructor use, learner use, integration into teaching-learning)

Dependent Variables:

• Learner Retention
• Literacy and Numeracy Gains
• Skills Acquisition
• Learner Satisfaction
• Instructor Effectiveness
• Programme Efficiency

Mediating Variables (How ICT leads to outcomes):

• Perceived usefulness (TAM)
• Perceived ease of use (TAM)
• Andragogical alignment

2.3 Summary of Literature Review in a Tabular Format

The table below summarizes key empirical and theoretical literature relevant to ICT utilization and implementation in adult education, highlighting strengths, weaknesses, limitations, and gaps.

Author(s) and Year	Focus of Study	Strength	Weakness	Limitation	Gap Identified
Knowles (1984); Knowles et al. (2019)	Andragogy (Adult Learning Theory)	Seminal theoretical framework	Assumptions not fully tested; may not apply to all adults	Developed country focus	Application to ICT-mediated adult education in Nigeria needed
Davis (1989)	Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)	Highly influential; extensive empirical validation	Individual-level focus; self-reported perceptions	Corporate/office context; not education-specific	Application to adult education in Nigeria needed
Venkatesh et al. (2003)	UTAUT (Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology)	Comprehensive integration of multiple models	Complex; many constructs	Corporate/office context	Adult education application needed
Rogers (2003)	Diffusion of Innovations Theory	Comprehensive framework for adoption	Pro-innovation bias; underemphasizes structural constraints	General; not education-specific	Application to ICT in adult education in Nigeria needed
Merriam and Baumgartner (2020)	Learning in adulthood (textbook)	Comprehensive coverage of adult learning theory	Developed country focus; limited ICT focus	Not Nigeria-specific	Application to Nigerian adult education needed
UNESCO (2019)	ICT in education guide	Authoritative policy guide	Not empirical; not Nigeria-specific	Implementation guidance not country-specific	Nigeria implementation research needed
Tinio (2020)	ICT in education for developing countries	Developing country focus	Not empirical; not Nigeria-specific	General recommendations	Nigeria-specific empirical research needed
World Bank (2021)	Digital transformation in education	Comprehensive global review	Not Nigeria-specific	Limited adult education focus	Nigeria adult education ICT research needed
Kozma (2019)	ICT and educational transformation	Theoretical framework	Not empirical	Not developing country specific	Empirical testing in Nigeria needed
Adegoke and Oyewole (2021)	ICT and adult education in Nigeria	Nigeria-specific; empirical (national survey)	National level; not state-specific	Cross River State not isolated	State-level analysis (Cross River) needed
Nwosu and Okafor (2021)	Adult literacy in South-South Nigeria	Nigeria-specific; South-South focus	Includes Cross River but not ICT-specific	Limited ICT content	ICT in adult education in Cross River needed
Okonkwo (2020)	Adult and non-formal education in Nigeria	Nigeria policy analysis	Not empirical; not ICT-specific	Policy focus only	Implementation research needed
Eze and Nweze (2019)	Adult education in Cross River State	Cross River State specific	Descriptive; not ICT-specific	Limited ICT content	ICT focus needed
Federal Ministry of Education (2019)	National policy on adult education	Official policy document	Not research; not empirical	Policy not implementation	Policy implementation evaluation needed
Cross River State Ministry of Education (2020)	State adult education annual report	Official state data	Not research; not ICT-specific	No analysis	Analysis of ICT resources needed
UNESCO Institute for Statistics (2022)	Literacy rates by country	Official international statistics	Nigeria aggregate data	Not state-specific (Cross River)	State-level literacy data needed
NBS (2022)	Literacy report Nigeria	Official Nigeria data	Includes state-level (Cross River)	Not ICT-specific	Link between ICT and literacy not examined
Adeleke (2020)	Mobile learning for adult literacy in Nigeria	Nigeria-specific; mobile learning	Single intervention study	Not generalizable to Cross River	Cross River replication needed
Ogunlade (2019)	Radio-based adult education in Nigeria	Nigeria-specific; radio focus	Not Cross River specific	Geographic gap	Cross River radio education study needed
Yusuf and Onifade (2021)	ICT skills of adult educators in South-West Nigeria	South-West Nigeria	Not South-South (Cross River)	Geographic gap	Cross River adult educator ICT skills needed
Olaniyi and Adebayo (2020)	Challenges of ICT in Nigerian adult education	Nigeria general	Not state-specific	Cross River not isolated	Cross River challenges needed
Akinfolarin and Ehinola (2019)	ICT infrastructure in adult education centres in Ondo State	Ondo State	Not Cross River	Geographic gap	Cross River infrastructure needed
Ojo and Adeyemi (2021)	Digital literacy and adult learners in Lagos State	Lagos State	Urban focus; not applicable to rural Cross River	Geographic and urban-rural gap	Rural Cross River digital literacy needed
UNESCO (2021)	Adult education and COVID-19	Global	Not Nigeria-specific	No Cross River data	Cross River COVID-19 impact on adult education needed
Venkatesh and Bala (2008)	TAM3 (extension)	Theoretical refinement	Not applied to education	Not adult education	TAM testing in adult education needed
Straub (2009)	TAM validation	Methodological	Not education context	Not developing country	TAM testing in Nigerian adult education needed
Warshaw and Davis (2019)	TAM extensions	Theoretical	Not empirical	Not adult education	Empirical testing in adult education needed
Valente (2020)	Social network analysis and diffusion	Methodological advance	Complex	Not applied to ICT in adult education	Diffusion analysis in adult education needed
Dearing and Cox (2018)	Diffusion of innovations in health	Health focus	Not education	Not ICT	Transfer to adult education needed
Greenhalgh et al. (2019)	Diffusion of innovations in service organizations	Healthcare focus	Not education	Not ICT	Adult education application needed