EFFECTS OF ADOPTION OF STRIGA RESISTANT MAIZE PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGIES ON FARMERS’ LIVELIHOOD IN KAJURU LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, KADUNA STATE, NIGERIA

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Maize (Zea mays L.) occupies a position of paramount importance in the agricultural economy and food systems of Nigeria, serving as a staple food for millions of households, a primary source of animal feed for the rapidly growing poultry and livestock industries, and an industrial raw material for food processing, brewing, and biofuel production. Nigeria is the largest maize producer in sub-Saharan Africa, with annual production estimated at over 10 million metric tons, cultivated on approximately 5 million hectares by an estimated 3.5 million smallholder farmers (FAOSTAT, 2020). Despite this impressive production volume, average maize yields in Nigeria remain low—typically 1.5-2.0 tons per hectare compared to potential yields of 5-6 tons per hectare—due to a combination of biotic and abiotic constraints, among which the parasitic weed Striga is increasingly recognized as a major limiting factor (IITA, 2019). (FAOSTAT, 2020; IITA, 2019)

Striga (Striga hermonthica), commonly known as witchweed, is a devastating parasitic weed that infests cereal crops including maize, sorghum, and millet across sub-Saharan Africa, causing estimated annual yield losses of 20-80% and affecting over 40 million hectares of cropland. The plant attaches to host roots, extracting water, nutrients, and photosynthates, thereby stunting growth, reducing yield, and in severe infestations, causing complete crop failure (Ejeta, 2020). Striga is particularly problematic in low-fertility, degraded soils, which are widespread in the Guinea savannah zone of northern Nigeria, including Kajuru Local Government Area of Kaduna State. The weed produces tens of thousands of tiny seeds per plant that remain viable in the soil for up to 20 years, making eradication extremely difficult once an area is infested (Parker, 2019). (Ejeta, 2020; Parker, 2019)

The Striga problem in Kajuru Local Government Area has intensified over the past two decades due to a combination of factors: continuous maize cultivation without adequate rotation; declining soil fertility due to limited fertilizer use and nutrient mining; the spread of Striga seeds through wind, water, animals, and farm implements; and the limited adoption of integrated Striga management strategies by smallholder farmers. Field surveys and agricultural extension reports indicate that Striga infestation affects an estimated 60-80% of maize fields in Kajuru, with yield losses ranging from 30% to complete crop failure in severely infested fields (Kaduna State Ministry of Agriculture, 2020). For resource-poor farmers who depend on maize for both food security and cash income, Striga represents a persistent threat to livelihood sustainability. (Kaduna State Ministry of Agriculture, 2020)

Striga resistant maize production technologies represent a suite of innovations developed primarily by the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) and national agricultural research systems to address the Striga menace in an integrated, sustainable manner. These technologies include: Striga resistant maize varieties (e.g., the TZL series, IWD series, and TZISTR composite varieties) that have been bred to withstand Striga attack through mechanisms including low stimulant production (reducing Striga seed germination), mechanical resistance (preventing Striga attachment), and tolerance (maintaining yield despite Striga attachment); Striga tolerant open-pollinated varieties (OPVs) and hybrids suitable for different agroecological zones; imidazolinone-resistant (IR) maize varieties that allow for seed coating with herbicide (e.g., StrigAway technology); and integrated Striga management practices including rotation with trap crops (cowpea, soybean), soil fertility improvement (organic and inorganic fertilizers), and cultural practices such as hand pulling of Striga before flowering (IITA, 2019). (IITA, 2019)

The adoption of Striga resistant maize varieties has been promoted across Nigeria through the IITA-coordinated Striga Integrated Management Program (SIMP), the African Agricultural Technology Foundation (AATF), national extension services, and various donor-funded agricultural development projects. In Kaduna State, including Kajuru LGA, these promotion efforts have included: on-farm demonstration plots where farmers can observe Striga resistant varieties alongside local susceptible varieties; seed multiplication and distribution programs to increase availability of Striga resistant seeds; training workshops for extension agents and lead farmers on Striga identification, biology, and management; and radio programs and farmer field days disseminating information about Striga resistant technologies (AATF, 2020). Despite these efforts, adoption rates remain variable, and the effects of adoption on farmers’ livelihoods have not been systematically evaluated in the Kajuru context. (AATF, 2020)

Kajuru Local Government Area, located in the Guinea savannah ecological zone of southern Kaduna State, provides an appropriate and informative context for studying the effects of Striga resistant maize production technologies on farmers’ livelihoods. The LGA is characterized by a mix of indigenous Adara, Hausa, and other ethnic groups, with agriculture providing the primary livelihood for an estimated 80% of the population. Maize is the dominant crop, cultivated in both the rainy season (main crop) and, where irrigation is available, dry-season farming. Soils are predominantly ferruginous tropical soils that are inherently low in organic matter and nitrogen, with continuous cultivation and limited fertilizer use contributing to soil degradation and Striga build-up (Kajuru Local Government, 2020). Striga infestation is widely recognized by farmers as one of their most serious production constraints. (Kajuru Local Government, 2020)

The socio-economic characteristics of farmers in Kajuru LGA—including age, educational attainment, household size, farm size, maize farming experience, asset ownership, and access to extension services—influence both the likelihood of adopting Striga resistant technologies and the magnitude of livelihood effects that adoption generates. Younger farmers may be more willing to experiment with new varieties; older farmers may have accumulated more resources but also more established farming habits. Education enhances farmers’ ability to understand Striga biology, the mechanisms of resistance, and the importance of complementary practices (e.g., rotation, soil fertility management). Household size affects labor availability for practices such as hand pulling of Striga and careful seed selection (Rogers, 2003). Understanding these characteristics and their relationship to adoption and livelihood outcomes is a key descriptive objective of this research. (Rogers, 2003)

Livelihood, as an analytical concept and outcome measure, encompasses multiple dimensions beyond simply agricultural productivity or income. The sustainable livelihoods framework, widely adopted in development research, conceptualizes livelihoods as comprising five capital assets: human capital (skills, knowledge, health), social capital (networks, groups, trust), natural capital (land, water, soil fertility), physical capital (infrastructure, equipment, tools), and financial capital (savings, credit, income flows) (Scoones, 2018). For farmers in Kajuru LGA, adoption of Striga resistant maize technologies may affect multiple livelihood capitals simultaneously: increased maize yields (financial capital); reduced labor for Striga weeding (human capital, physical capital); improved soil fertility through rotation with legume trap crops (natural capital); and strengthened farmer groups through collective learning and seed sharing (social capital). A comprehensive assessment of adoption effects must therefore examine multiple livelihood dimensions, not solely maize yield or income (Morse and McNamara, 2019). (Scoones, 2018; Morse and McNamara, 2019)

The economic effects of adopting Striga resistant maize technologies on farmers’ livelihoods operate through several interconnected pathways. First, by reducing Striga damage, these technologies directly increase maize grain yield per hectare, typically by 30-100% compared to local susceptible varieties under moderate to severe Striga infestation. Second, increased yield translates into increased grain available for household consumption (improving food security) and for sale (increasing cash income). Third, reduced Striga infestation may also improve stover (residue) availability for livestock feed, supporting smallholder livestock production. Fourth, where adoption of Striga resistant varieties is combined with rotation using legume trap crops (e.g., cowpea), farmers may benefit from both maize yield gains and additional legume harvest, diversifying income and improving soil fertility through biological nitrogen fixation (Ejeta, 2020). Fifth, reduced labor requirements for Striga weeding (hand pulling) frees household labor for other productive activities or reduces reliance on hired labor, lowering production costs. (Ejeta, 2020)

The effects of adoption on farmers’ livelihoods are likely to be heterogeneous, varying systematically with the intensity of Striga infestation on a farmer’s fields, the specific technologies adopted (e.g., resistant varieties alone vs. resistant varieties plus rotation vs. herbicide-coated seed), the quality of complementary management practices (fertilizer use, timely planting, weed control), and farmer characteristics (resource endowments, risk preferences, market access). For example, farmers with severely infested fields may experience larger absolute yield gains from adoption (because baseline yields are very low), but may also face greater challenges in achieving those gains if Striga seed banks are large and if multiple seasons of adoption are required to see full benefits. Farmers with access to credit may be better able to purchase improved seeds and fertilizers, achieving higher yields and thus larger livelihood improvements (Adepoju and Oni, 2019). (Adepoju and Oni, 2019)

The adoption pathway for Striga resistant maize technologies involves not only a discrete decision to purchase and plant a resistant variety, but also ongoing decisions about complementary practices. To realize the full benefits of resistance, farmers are recommended to: rotate maize with non-host crops (soybean, cowpea, groundnut) to reduce Striga seed banks; apply organic and inorganic fertilizers to maintain soil fertility, as resistant varieties are not immune to low fertility; plant at optimal densities and planting dates to maximize crop competitiveness; and practice hand pulling of any Striga plants that emerge (especially in the first seasons after introduction) to prevent seed set. Farmers who adopt the resistant variety but do not adopt complementary practices may achieve only partial yield gains, and may become discouraged if their yields do not match expectations (Manyong et al., 2019). Understanding which complementary practices are adopted, and how the completeness of technology adoption affects livelihood outcomes, is a key focus of this study. (Manyong et al., 2019)

The institutional environment in Kajuru LGA—including agricultural extension services, farmer cooperative organizations, seed supply systems, and input markets—shapes both the adoption of Striga resistant technologies and their effects on livelihoods. Extension agents can provide critical information about Striga biology, variety selection, planting practices, and complementary management, but extension contact frequency in Kajuru is low (estimated one agent per 4,000-5,000 farmers) and agents may have limited specific knowledge about Striga resistant technologies. Farmer cooperatives can facilitate collective learning, seed multiplication, group purchasing, and shared experience, but cooperative functionality varies widely. Seed supply systems for Striga resistant varieties are still developing; seeds may not be available in local agro-dealer shops at planting time, or may be available only at premium prices that poor farmers cannot afford (Kaduna State Ministry of Agriculture, 2020). The effectiveness of these institutional channels in supporting adoption and livelihood improvement has not been systematically evaluated in Kajuru. (Kaduna State Ministry of Agriculture, 2020)

The gender dimensions of adoption and livelihood effects are particularly relevant in the Kajuru context, where women play significant roles in maize production, particularly in weeding, harvesting, and post-harvest processing. Striga weeding (hand pulling) is typically women’s work, and where Striga infestation is severe, women may spend many days per season pulling Striga plants—time that could otherwise be allocated to other productive activities, rest, or child care. Adoption of Striga resistant technologies that reduce Striga emergence and thus the labor required for weeding could have substantial positive effects on women’s time allocation and well-being (Ogunleke and Ajayi, 2019). However, women may also face barriers to adoption: less access to cash to purchase improved seeds; less access to extension information (if extension agents are predominantly male and cultural norms restrict women’s interactions); less decision-making authority over seed purchases; and less membership in cooperatives. Understanding how adoption affects women’s (and men’s) livelihoods differentially, and whether adoption effects are equitable or exacerbate existing gender inequalities, is a critical dimension of this study. (Ogunleke and Ajayi, 2019)

The effects of Striga resistant maize adoption on farmers’ food security represent a particularly important livelihood dimension, given that maize is a primary staple food in Kajuru households. For households that produce maize for home consumption (the majority of smallholder households in the LGA), increased maize yield from adoption directly increases the quantity of grain available for household consumption, potentially extending the period of food self-sufficiency (the “hungry season” months when previous year’s stocks are exhausted). For households that produce a maize surplus for sale, adoption may increase cash income, which can be used to purchase other foods, improving dietary diversity. However, there may be trade-offs: if adoption leads farmers to shift from local landraces (often preferred for taste or storage) to improved resistant varieties, households may value the grain differently, affecting consumption choices. These food security effects have not been quantified for Kajuru farmers (Oladapo and Ogunwale, 2019). (Oladapo and Ogunwale, 2019)

Previous studies on Striga resistant maize technologies in Nigeria and other African countries have documented significant yield advantages and positive economic returns, but most have been conducted in research station or controlled on-farm trial settings, with limited evidence on realized effects under real farm conditions as farmers make their own management decisions. A study by Kamara et al. (2018) in northern Nigeria reported yield advantages of 40-80% for Striga resistant varieties over local checks under moderate infestation. A study by Menkir et al. (2019) across multiple West African locations found that adoption of Striga resistant varieties reduced yield losses from 50-70% to 15-25%. A study by Tambo and Abdoulaye (2020) in two Nigerian states found that adopters of Striga resistant maize had significantly higher yields, lower food insecurity, and higher asset levels than non-adopters, but the authors cautioned that cross-sectional comparisons may be affected by selection bias (farmers who adopt may already be better-off for other reasons). No previous study has specifically examined the effects of Striga resistant maize adoption on farmers’ livelihoods in Kajuru LGA, Kaduna State (Kamara et al., 2018; Menkir et al., 2019; Tambo and Abdoulaye, 2020). (Kamara et al., 2018; Menkir et al., 2019; Tambo and Abdoulaye, 2020)

The conceptual framework for this study integrates the sustainable livelihoods framework (Scoones, 2018) with the adoption-impact evaluation framework used in agricultural technology assessment (Coudouel et al., 2019). The framework posits that farmers’ livelihood outcomes—including maize yield, household income, food security, asset accumulation, and subjective well-being—are determined by: (a) adoption of Striga resistant maize technologies (variety type, adoption intensity, use of complementary practices); (b) farmer and household characteristics (age, education, household size, farm size, asset levels); (c) farm characteristics (Striga infestation level, soil fertility, field location); (d) institutional factors (extension access, credit access, group membership, seed availability); and (e) exogenous shocks (weather, prices). The adoption decision itself is modeled as a function of farmer characteristics, information access, technology awareness, risk preferences, and resource constraints. The empirical framework uses quasi-experimental methods (propensity score matching, difference-in-differences where retrospective baseline data are available) to estimate the causal effect of adoption on livelihood outcomes, controlling for selection bias (Coudouel et al., 2019). (Scoones, 2018; Coudouel et al., 2019)

The policy relevance of this study is substantial. The Kaduna State government, through its agricultural development strategy, has identified maize as a priority crop and Striga management as a priority intervention. The federal government’s Agricultural Promotion Policy (APP) and subsequent National Agricultural Technology and Innovation Policy (NATIP) have highlighted Striga resistant technologies as a key component of maize value chain development. International donors, including the World Bank (through the Kaduna State Agro-Processing, Productivity Enhancement and Livelihood Improvement Support – APPEALS project), the African Development Bank, and the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), have invested in Striga resistant maize dissemination in northern Nigeria. Yet evidence on whether these investments are achieving their intended livelihood effects, and for which farmers, is limited. This study will contribute evidence to guide policy decisions about scaling up, targeting, and complementary interventions (Kaduna State Ministry of Agriculture, 2020). (Kaduna State Ministry of Agriculture, 2020)

In summary, Striga resistant maize production technologies offer substantial potential for improving the livelihoods of smallholder farmers in Striga-infested areas of Kajuru Local Government Area, Kaduna State, by increasing yields, reducing labor requirements, enhancing food security, and raising incomes. However, despite over a decade of technology development and promotion, the actual effects of adoption on farmers’ livelihoods under real farm conditions in Kajuru have not been rigorously evaluated. The magnitude of livelihood gains, the heterogeneity of effects across different farmer groups, the role of complementary practices, the gender dimensions of adoption and effects, and the constraints that limit adoption or reduce its effectiveness are all unknown. This study therefore seeks to fill these knowledge gaps by providing empirical evidence on the effects of adoption of Striga resistant maize production technologies on farmers’ livelihoods in Kajuru LGA, generating actionable recommendations for extension, policy, and future technology dissemination programs (Kamara et al., 2021; Menkir et al., 2021). (Kamara et al., 2021; Menkir et al., 2021)

1.2 Statement of the Problems

Despite the proven technical effectiveness of Striga resistant maize varieties in increasing yields under controlled conditions, and despite sustained promotion efforts by IITA, AATF, the Kaduna State Agricultural Development Programme (KADP), and various development projects, adoption of these technologies among smallholder farmers in Kajuru LGA remains partial and variable. Preliminary evidence suggests that while awareness of Striga resistant varieties has increased, adoption rates remain below 30% of maize farmers, and many farmers who have tried resistant varieties do not continue to use them in subsequent seasons. The persistence of Striga infestation and the continued use of susceptible local varieties by the majority of farmers represents a significant missed opportunity for productivity growth and livelihood improvement.

The continued prevalence of Striga infestation and the slow adoption of resistant technologies carry substantial economic costs for farmers in Kajuru LGA. Yield losses from Striga typically range from 30-70% in the area, with some fields experiencing complete crop failure in severe infestation years. For a typical farmer cultivating 1-2 hectares of maize, Striga-induced yield losses translate into foregone income of NGN 50,000-150,000 per season—a substantial amount for households living on the margins of poverty. Aggregated across the thousands of maize-farming households in Kajuru, the total annual economic loss from Striga runs into hundreds of millions of Naira. Furthermore, labor spent hand-pulling Striga (estimated at 10-30 person-days per hectare per season) represents additional opportunity costs and drudgery, particularly for women who perform most of this work.

A first specific problem is the absence of empirical data quantifying the effects of Striga resistant maize adoption on farmers’ livelihoods in Kajuru LGA. While the yield advantage of resistant varieties under research station conditions is well-documented, the realized effects under farmers’ own management conditions—with their variation in soil fertility, planting dates, weed management, and other practices—may be different. Furthermore, effects on income, food security, asset accumulation, labor allocation, and subjective well-being have not been measured. Policymakers, extension managers, and development partners lack evidence on what livelihood benefits adoption actually delivers in the Kajuru context, and whether those benefits justify continued investment in promotion.

A second problem concerns the heterogeneity of adoption effects across different types of farmers, fields, and farming systems. It is unlikely that all farmers who adopt Striga resistant technologies experience the same magnitude of livelihood benefits. Farmers with higher Striga infestation levels may experience larger absolute yield gains but may also face greater challenges in achieving those gains (due to large Striga seed banks). Farmers with better soil fertility may achieve higher yields with resistant varieties than those on degraded soils. Farmers with access to complementary inputs (fertilizer, credit) may benefit more than those without. Women farmers may experience different effects (e.g., time savings from reduced weeding) than men. The current evidence base does not permit analysis of this heterogeneity, leading to one-size-fits-all recommendations that may not be optimal for all farmers.

A third problem concerns the role of complementary practices in mediating the livelihood effects of Striga resistant maize adoption. Farmers who adopt resistant varieties but do not adopt complementary practices—such as rotation with legume trap crops, fertilizer application, timely planting, and hand pulling of emerged Striga—may achieve only partial yield gains. Indeed, adoption of the resistant variety alone, without fertility management, may result in disappointing yields that lead farmers to disadopt. The extent to which Kajuru farmers adopt complementary practices, the patterns of partial versus complete technology adoption, and the effect of adoption completeness on livelihood outcomes have not been systematically examined.

A fourth problem concerns the dynamics of adoption and livelihood effects over multiple seasons. The benefits of Striga resistant technologies may be cumulative: reducing Striga seed banks over time, improving soil fertility through rotation, and increasing farmers’ knowledge and skills. A farmer who adopts resistant varieties for a single season may experience modest benefits; a farmer who adopts for five consecutive seasons may experience increasing benefits as Striga populations decline. Conversely, there may be initial costs (seed purchase, learning) that are not fully recouped in the first season. The current evidence base, which is largely cross-sectional, cannot capture these dynamic effects. Longitudinal data on adoption patterns and livelihood trajectories are lacking for Kajuru.

A fifth problem concerns the relationship between Striga resistant maize adoption and household food security. Maize is a primary staple in Kajuru; households that suffer Striga-induced yield losses have less grain for home consumption and may face food deficits during the “hungry season” (typically June-August before harvest). Adoption of resistant varieties could improve food security by increasing the quantity of grain available for household consumption and by extending the period of self-sufficiency. However, no study has quantified these food security effects—measured by months of adequate food provisioning, dietary diversity, or food consumption scores—for adopting households in Kajuru. Furthermore, potential trade-offs (e.g., if resistant varieties are less preferred for taste or storage) have not been assessed.

A sixth problem concerns the labor effects of Striga resistant maize adoption, particularly for women. Striga weeding (hand pulling) is labor-intensive and is typically performed by women. Resistant varieties, by reducing Striga emergence, could substantially reduce the time women spend on Striga weeding, freeing labor for other productive activities, rest, or child care. However, the actual time savings realized by adopting households in Kajuru have not been measured. Furthermore, if labor saved from Striga weeding is reallocated to other on-farm or off-farm activities, the net effect on household income could be larger than the direct yield effect alone. Conversely, if saved labor is not productively reallocated (e.g., if it becomes idle time), the welfare gain may be smaller. These labor allocation effects have not been studied.

A seventh problem concerns the effect of Striga resistant maize adoption on asset accumulation and investment. Increased income from higher maize yields may enable adopting households to accumulate assets—livestock, bicycles, mobile phones, improved housing, farm equipment—or to invest in children’s education, health care, or other productivity-enhancing inputs. These asset accumulation effects are critical for long-term poverty reduction and household resilience, but they require time to manifest and have not been studied in the Kajuru context. Conversely, if adoption does not generate sufficient income gains to enable asset accumulation, or if asset accumulation is captured only by better-off adopting households, the equity implications of adoption may be problematic.

An eighth problem concerns the effect of Striga resistant maize adoption on social capital and collective action. Many Striga resistant maize promotion programs work through farmer groups, cooperatives, and lead farmers, aiming to strengthen social networks and collective capacity for learning, seed multiplication, and shared experimentation. Adoption may thus have positive effects on social capital, which in turn may generate benefits beyond those directly attributable to the technology itself (e.g., improved ability to access credit, markets, or extension). However, the effects of adoption (or participation in promotion programs) on social capital in Kajuru have not been measured, and the extent to which social capital gains translate into livelihood improvements is unknown.

A ninth problem concerns the factors that limit adoption of Striga resistant technologies in the first place, which must be understood both to interpret the effects on adopters (who may be a selected sample) and to design interventions to expand adoption. Potential constraints include: limited availability of Striga resistant seeds at planting time; higher cost of improved seeds compared to local grain used as seed; limited farmer awareness of Striga resistant varieties and their benefits; lack of understanding of complementary practices (rotation, fertility management); limited access to credit to purchase seeds and fertilizers; risk aversion (farmers uncertain about performance of new varieties); and in some cases, preference for local varieties for specific uses (e.g., taste, storage quality). The relative importance of these constraints in Kajuru has not been systematically assessed.

A tenth problem concerns the gender dimensions of both adoption and livelihood effects. Women in Kajuru play significant roles in maize production but may face distinct barriers to adoption: less access to cash income to purchase improved seeds; less control over household decision-making regarding seed purchases; less access to extension information (if extension agents are male and cultural norms restrict interactions); and less membership in farmer groups (which are often male-dominated). If adoption is disproportionately by men, or if the benefits of adoption are captured primarily by men, then Striga resistant maize promotion may inadvertently exacerbate existing gender inequalities, even if average livelihood effects are positive. The gender-differentiated adoption patterns and effects in Kajuru have not been examined.

An eleventh problem concerns the sustainability of adoption and livelihood effects over the medium to long term. Adoption of Striga resistant varieties does not permanently eliminate Striga; it reduces but does not eliminate Striga emergence, and if farmers revert to susceptible varieties after a few seasons, Striga seed banks can rebuild. Sustained adoption of resistant varieties (or adoption of integrated Striga management including rotation) is necessary for long-term Striga control and continued livelihood benefits. However, there is evidence from other contexts that adoption of Striga resistant varieties declines after initial promotion programs end, as seed supply chains weaken and farmer interest wanes. The extent to which adoption in Kajuru is sustained over time, and whether livelihood effects are maintained or erode after initial adoption, has not been studied.

A twelfth problem concerns the comparability of findings across different Striga resistant technologies (e.g., conventional resistant varieties vs. imidazolinone-resistant herbicide-coated varieties). Different technologies have different cost structures, management requirements, and effectiveness profiles. Imidazolinone-resistant varieties (StrigAway technology) are more expensive (due to herbicide coating) but may provide more complete Striga control in the first season; conventional resistant varieties are cheaper but may require rotation and multiple seasons to achieve full Striga control. The effects on farmers’ livelihoods likely differ between these technology options, but the evidence base for comparing them in Kajuru is absent. Farmers would benefit from guidance on which technology is most appropriate for their specific conditions.

In summary, the effects of adoption of Striga resistant maize production technologies on farmers’ livelihoods in Kajuru LGA constitute a significant knowledge gap with serious implications for agricultural policy, extension programming, and technology dissemination investments. Despite plausible theoretical pathways and evidence of technical effectiveness, there are no rigorous quantitative estimates of: the realized effects of adoption on maize yield, income, food security, labor allocation, and asset accumulation under real farm conditions; the heterogeneity of effects across different farmer groups (by gender, wealth, infestation level, complementary practice adoption); the dynamic effects over multiple seasons; or the constraints that limit adoption and reduce effectiveness. This study therefore seeks to fill these gaps by providing empirical evidence on the effects of adoption of Striga resistant maize production technologies on farmers’ livelihoods in Kajuru LGA, generating actionable recommendations for extension, policy, and future technology dissemination programs.

1.3 Aim of the Study

The aim of this study is to analyze the effects of adoption of Striga resistant maize production technologies on farmers’ livelihoods in Kajuru Local Government Area, Kaduna State, Nigeria.

1.4 Objectives of the Study

The specific objectives of this study are to:

1. Describe the socio-economic characteristics of maize farmers in Kajuru LGA and determine the current adoption status of Striga resistant maize technologies (adopters, partial adopters, non-adopters) and the specific varieties and practices adopted.
2. Compare the livelihood outcomes (maize yield, net farm income, food security status, asset ownership, labor allocation) between adopters and non-adopters of Striga resistant maize technologies, controlling for other factors.
3. Estimate the causal effect of adoption of Striga resistant maize technologies on farmers’ household income and food security, using appropriate quasi-experimental methods to address selection bias.
4. Analyze the heterogeneity of adoption effects across different farmer subgroups (by gender, farm size, Striga infestation severity, and adoption completeness) and examine the role of complementary practices (rotation, fertilizer use, hand pulling) in mediating livelihood effects.
5. Examine the constraints limiting adoption of Striga resistant maize technologies and the factors associated with sustained adoption versus disadoption, and develop recommendations for policy, extension, and technology dissemination programs.

1.5 Research Questions

This study seeks to answer the following research questions:

1. What are the socio-economic characteristics of maize farmers in Kajuru LGA, and what is the current adoption status and pattern of Striga resistant maize technologies?
2. Do adopters of Striga resistant maize technologies have significantly higher maize yield, net farm income, food security, and asset levels than non-adopters?
3. What is the causal effect of adoption of Striga resistant maize technologies on farmers’ household income and food security, after controlling for selection bias?
4. Do the effects of adoption on livelihood outcomes vary significantly across different farmer subgroups (by gender, farm size, infestation level, and adoption completeness), and what is the role of complementary practices?
5. What are the major constraints limiting adoption of Striga resistant maize technologies in Kajuru LGA, and what factors distinguish sustained adopters from those who discontinue use?

1.6 Research Hypotheses

Hypothesis One

• Null Hypothesis (H₀₁): Adoption of Striga resistant maize technologies has no significant effect on maize yield (kg/ha) of farmers in Kajuru LGA.
• Alternative Hypothesis (H₁₁): Adoption of Striga resistant maize technologies has a significant positive effect on maize yield (kg/ha) of farmers in Kajuru LGA.

Hypothesis Two

• Null Hypothesis (H₀₂): Adoption of Striga resistant maize technologies has no significant effect on net farm income of farmers in Kajuru LGA.
• Alternative Hypothesis (H₁₂): Adoption of Striga resistant maize technologies has a significant positive effect on net farm income of farmers in Kajuru LGA.

Hypothesis Three

• Null Hypothesis (H₀₃): Adoption of Striga resistant maize technologies has no significant effect on the household food security status (measured by months of adequate food provisioning) of farmers in Kajuru LGA.
• Alternative Hypothesis (H₁₃): Adoption of Striga resistant maize technologies has a significant positive effect on the household food security status of farmers in Kajuru LGA.

Hypothesis Four

• Null Hypothesis (H₀₄): There is no significant difference in the livelihood effects of adoption between male-headed and female-headed households adopting Striga resistant maize technologies in Kajuru LGA.
• Alternative Hypothesis (H₁₄): There is a significant difference in the livelihood effects of adoption between male-headed and female-headed households adopting Striga resistant maize technologies in Kajuru LGA.

Hypothesis Five

• Null Hypothesis (H₀₅): There is no significant relationship between the adoption of complementary practices (rotation with legumes, fertilizer use, hand pulling of Striga) and the magnitude of livelihood benefits from Striga resistant maize adoption.
• Alternative Hypothesis (H₁₅): There is a significant positive relationship between the adoption of complementary practices and the magnitude of livelihood benefits from Striga resistant maize adoption in Kajuru LGA.

1.7 Significance of the Study

This study is significant for multiple stakeholders and purposes. First, for maize farmers in Kajuru LGA and other Striga-infested areas of Kaduna State, the findings will provide evidence on the benefits and challenges of adopting Striga resistant technologies, supporting informed decision-making about technology adoption. Second, for agricultural extension services (KADP, NAERLS, and local government extension departments), the study will identify which farmer characteristics, complementary practices, and support services most strongly influence positive livelihood outcomes, enabling more effective extension programming. Third, for policymakers at state and federal levels, the evidence generated will inform decisions about allocation of resources to Striga resistant maize promotion, targeting of interventions, and design of complementary programs (seed supply, credit, fertilizer subsidies). Fourth, for IITA, AATF, and other research institutions developing Striga resistant technologies, the study will provide feedback on technology performance under real farm conditions, farmer preferences, and adoption constraints, guiding future breeding and technology development priorities. Fifth, for development partners and NGOs working in maize value chain development in Kaduna State (World Bank, IFAD, USAID, etc.), the findings will guide intervention design and resource allocation for Striga management programs. Sixth, for the Kajuru Local Government Council, the study will provide evidence to support agricultural planning and budgeting decisions. Seventh, for the academic community, the study will contribute to the literature on adoption and livelihood effects of Striga resistant maize technologies in the Guinea savannah zone of Nigeria—a relatively under-researched area. Eighth, for women farmers specifically, the study’s attention to gender-differentiated effects may inform more equitable technology dissemination strategies. Finally, by generating evidence that can enhance adoption and its livelihood benefits, the study will contribute indirectly to increasing maize productivity, improving household food security and income, reducing poverty, and enhancing agricultural sustainability in Striga-infested areas of Kaduna State.

1.8 Scope of the Study

The geographical scope of this study is limited to Kajuru Local Government Area, Kaduna State, Nigeria. Kajuru LGA is located in the southern part of Kaduna State, within the Guinea savannah ecological zone. The LGA comprises several districts/wards including Kajuru, Idon, Kasuwan Magani, Kufana, Buda, and others. The study focuses on rural wards where maize production is a primary livelihood activity and where Striga infestation is recognized as a significant production constraint. The thematic scope focuses specifically on Striga resistant maize production technologies as defined by IITA and national research programs, including: Striga resistant maize varieties (e.g., TZL series, IWD series, TZISTR composites, and imidazolinone-resistant varieties); recommended complementary practices (rotation with legume trap crops, fertilizer application, timely planting, hand pulling of emerged Striga). The study examines adoption effects on multiple livelihood dimensions: maize yield (kg/ha), net farm income (NGN), household food security (months of adequate provisioning, dietary diversity), asset ownership (livestock, durable goods, farm equipment), labor allocation (time spent on Striga weeding), and, where feasible, subjective well-being. The study does not extend to Striga resistant technologies for other cereals (sorghum, millet) or to maize production systems outside the smallholder rain-fed system. The respondent scope includes smallholder maize farmers (adopters and non-adopters of Striga resistant technologies) in selected wards of Kajuru LGA. Key informants (extension agents, cooperative leaders, seed suppliers, KADP officials) are also included for qualitative data collection. The temporal scope covers the period 2018-2025, with primary data collected between 2024 and 2025, focusing on the most recent completed production season while also collecting retrospective information on adoption history and livelihood changes over multiple seasons.

1.9 Limitation of the Study

Several limitations inherent in this study should be acknowledged transparently. First, the study relies primarily on cross-sectional survey data, which can identify correlates of adoption and differences between adopters and non-adopters but cannot definitively establish causal relationships between adoption and livelihood outcomes without addressing selection bias (farmers who adopt may differ systematically from those who do not in unobserved ways). The study will employ quasi-experimental methods (propensity score matching) to address selection bias, but these methods rely on the assumption of no unobserved confounding. Second, the study focuses only on Kajuru LGA, so findings may not be generalizable to other LGAs in Kaduna State or to Striga-infested areas in other states with different agroecological, economic, or institutional conditions. Third, the study’s reliance on farmer recall for data on yields, input use, Striga infestation levels, and income is subject to recall bias and measurement error; where possible, the study will employ multiple recall aids and cross-check responses, but direct measurement (e.g., crop cutting) is logistically infeasible for a sample of this size. Fourth, social desirability bias may affect responses about adoption (farmers may overstate adoption) and about outcomes (farmers may overstate benefits to please interviewers). Fifth, the study cannot experimentally manipulate adoption status, so comparisons between adopters and non-adopters may be confounded by unobserved differences (e.g., farmer motivation, managerial ability, unobserved risk preferences) that affect both adoption and outcomes. Sixth, the study does not include a longitudinal component (following the same farmers over multiple seasons), so it cannot assess whether adoption effects are sustained over time, whether farmers disadopt after initial trial, or whether effects accumulate cumulatively. Seventh, the study does not include soil sampling or Striga seed bank measurement, so Striga infestation levels are measured through farmer report rather than direct observation, which may be subject to error. Eighth, the sample size, while statistically adequate for planned analyses, may limit the ability to detect small effects or to conduct highly disaggregated subgroup analyses (e.g., separate analysis for each ward or for small subpopulations of women adopters). Ninth, the study relies on self-reported measures of food security (e.g., months of adequate provisioning, HFIAS) which, while validated, are still subjective and may be affected by recall bias. Tenth, security conditions in parts of Kaduna State (including occasional community conflicts and banditry in some rural areas) may affect data collection access and respondent willingness to participate. Eleventh, the study does not include a cost-effectiveness analysis comparing the returns to investment in Striga resistant maize promotion with alternative interventions (e.g., fertilizer subsidies, soil conservation, other crop technologies). Despite these limitations, the study will employ rigorous sampling methods, validated survey instruments, appropriate analytical techniques (including propensity score matching, sensitivity analyses, and robustness checks), and transparent reporting to maximize the credibility and utility of its findings for policy and practice.

1.10 Definition of Terms

Striga (Striga hermonthica): A parasitic weed, commonly known as witchweed, that infests cereal crops including maize, sorghum, and millet throughout sub-Saharan Africa. Striga attaches to host roots, extracting water, nutrients, and photosynthates, causing stunting, yield loss (20-100%), and often complete crop failure in severe infestations. Seeds are extremely small, produced in large quantities, and remain viable in soil for up to 20 years.

Striga Resistant Maize Varieties: Maize varieties developed through conventional breeding that possess genetic mechanisms to resist Striga attack. These mechanisms include: low stimulant production (reducing Striga seed germination in the rhizosphere), mechanical resistance (preventing Striga attachment to roots), and tolerance (maintaining yield despite Striga attachment). Examples include IITA-developed TZL, IWD, and TZISTR series varieties.

Striga Resistant Maize Production Technologies: The integrated package consisting of: (a) Striga resistant maize varieties (conventional resistant varieties or imidazolinone-resistant herbicide-coated varieties); (b) recommended agronomic practices for Striga management including rotation with non-host crops (cowpea, soybean), soil fertility improvement (organic and inorganic fertilizers), timely planting, optimal plant density; and (c) cultural practices such as hand pulling of emerged Striga plants before seed set.

Adoption: The decision and subsequent action by a farmer to plant Striga resistant maize varieties and, where applicable, to implement complementary Striga management practices. Adoption may be measured as a binary variable (adopted/not adopted), as an intensity measure (proportion of maize area planted to resistant varieties), or as a completeness measure (number of recommended practices adopted). For this study, adoption is defined as planting at least one Striga resistant variety in the most recent production season.

Livelihood: The capabilities, assets (including human, social, natural, physical, and financial capital), and activities required for a means of living. In this study, livelihood is operationalized through multiple dimensions including maize yield, net farm income, household food security, asset ownership, and labor allocation.

Food Security: A state in which all people at all times have physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life. This study measures food security through the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) and months of adequate household food provisioning.

Net Farm Income: The net monetary return from maize production, calculated as total revenue from maize sales (plus imputed value of maize consumed at home) minus total variable costs (seed, fertilizer, pesticides, hired labor) and allocated fixed costs (depreciation of tools and equipment, land rental payments where applicable).

Striga Seed Bank: The reservoir of viable Striga seeds present in the soil. A single Striga plant can produce 50,000-200,000 seeds, and seeds can remain viable for up to 20 years. Reduction of the Striga seed bank through rotation with trap crops, hand pulling (preventing seed set), and other practices is necessary for long-term Striga control.

Trap Crop: A crop that stimulates Striga seed germination but is not a suitable host for Striga attachment and growth (or is less suitable). Legumes such as cowpea and soybean are effective trap crops for Striga; rotation of maize with these crops reduces Striga seed banks over time.

Imidazolinone-Resistant (IR) Maize (StrigAway Technology): Maize varieties that have been bred to be resistant to imidazolinone herbicides, allowing the seed to be coated with herbicide. When planted, the herbicide coating kills Striga seeds as they germinate, providing effective Striga control in the first season. IR maize is more expensive than conventional resistant varieties but may provide more rapid Striga control.

Hand Pulling: The practice of manually pulling Striga plants from the field before they flower and set seed. Hand pulling is labor-intensive but effective at preventing Striga seed bank replenishment. It is a recommended complementary practice for Striga resistant maize adoption, especially in the first seasons when Striga emergence may still occur.

Disadoption: The cessation of use of an adopted technology after initial trial. Disadoption may occur if farmers experience disappointing yields, if seed supply becomes unreliable, if complementary input costs are too high, or if farmers perceive that benefits do not justify costs. Understanding disadoption is important for designing interventions that promote sustained technology use.

Selection Bias: The bias that occurs in observational (non-experimental) studies when the treatment group (adopters) and comparison group (non-adopters) differ systematically on characteristics that also affect the outcome of interest. For example, farmers who adopt Striga resistant varieties may be wealthier, more educated, or more motivated than non-adopters; these differences may cause adopters to have better outcomes even without the technology. This study uses propensity score matching to address selection bias.

Propensity Score Matching (PSM): A quasi-experimental method that estimates the probability (propensity score) of a farmer being an adopter based on observable characteristics, then matches each adopter with one or more non-adopters with similar propensity scores, creating a balanced comparison group that approximates a randomized experiment.

Guinea Savannah: The ecological zone of northern Nigeria characterized by a rainy season of 120-150 days, annual rainfall of 1,000-1,400 mm, and predominantly ferruginous tropical soils. Kajuru LGA falls within the Guinea savannah zone, which is a major maize-producing region.

Kaduna State Agricultural Development Programme (KADP): The state government agency responsible for agricultural extension services, technology dissemination, and farmer training in Kaduna State, including promotion of Striga resistant maize technologies.

International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA): An international agricultural research center headquartered in Ibadan, Nigeria, which leads the development of Striga resistant maize varieties and Striga management technologies for sub-Saharan Africa.